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"t LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.} 

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I UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.! 




NATIONAL MONUMENT TO WASHINGTON, 
WASHINGTON CITY, 

600 FEET HIGH. See Description. 1 



4 



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AME.KICAN 



COTTAGE LIBRARY; 



USEFUL FACTS, FIGURES, AND HINTS, 



^ S .^W? r 



<j^stito^ 



I 



FOR EVERYBODY. 



CONTAINING 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORLD. 
STATISTICS OF THE U. STATES. 
STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 
POLITTCAL STATISTICS. 
GOVERNMENT AND GOV'T OFFICERS 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY — TAXATION. 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS DEPAKT- 

MENT— EDUCATION. 
AGRICULTURE. , 
THE GREAT WEST. 
MISCELLANY — ITEMS. 



EDITED BY A. W. FRANKLIN. 

14 



NEW YORK: 

BURGESS, STRINGER, & CO., 222 BROADWAY. 
CINCINNATI: BURGESS & AKERMAN. 



1848, 










Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1848, 

By BURGESS, STRINGER, & CO., 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the 

Southern District of New York. 



STEREOTYPED BY REDFIELD & SAVAGE, 
13 Chambers Street, N. Y. 



INTRODUCTION. 



All the political parties and religious sects, all the professions and trades, 
have their magazines and papers, which are devoted chiefly to the interests 
and instruction of their respective patrons. Our object in this work is to select 
from all these and other sources, what is of general interest and real utility — 
for everybody. Every man should certainly understand his own trade or pro- 
fession best ; but it is also his duty as well as privilege, as a free American 
citizen, to be well informed on all subjects affecting his own or his neighbors' 
welfare. 

Besides, notwithstanding the flood of books poured out from the press, there 
is a deficiency of useful and popular information for the masses. Valuable 
books are too voluminous and expensive, and cheap books too worthless, for 
the multitude of business and workingmen, who can only spare the fragments 
of time for reading. What they want is a record of the most interesting and 
useful facts, in a form for convenient reference at a moment's leisure ; and 
brief hints and suggestions on great and important subjects, affording food for 
thought and reflection during the hours of business and labor. We have aimed 
to supply both these facts and hints : the present number is only a beginning — 
if acceptable to the public, it will be continued to form a Cottage Library. 

There is intended to be no trash in this work — there is enough of it else- 
where. We have inserted some anecdotes, but not a sentence, we trust, from 
which a useful moral can not be drawn. We are afraid to do otherwise. As 
an American, a lover of our country, an accountable being, we dare not min- 
ister to the depraved mental appetite of the present day. It is amazing that 
rational and immortal beings can spend their time and task their intellects over 
the trash, the filth, the irrational fiction, which constitute the popular reading 
of the age. 

Our aim is to enter every family in the Union, and to make that family wiser 
and happier — to leave behind us a hundred-fold the price of our work in use- 
ful, practical knowledge. 



EXPLANATIONS. 

We bespeak the indulgence of the*reader for any errors and omissions. 
We have endeavored to make this work as correct as possible ; but perfection 
will not be expected in such a variety of matter, and collected from so many 
sources. We have sometimes chased a statement through several different 
works to establish its truth, and after all abandoned it, rather than publish 
what was doubtful for fact. Mistakes in figures are very easily made, and we 
can not be responsible for sums total, as we have always copied tables with- 
out going over the work ourselves. It may afford some excuse for private 
editors and printers to state, that public documents are not free from mistakes 
in figure-work. Indeed, they are unavoidable. To save space, we have 
adopted many abbreviations — the names of the states are generally abbrevi- 
ated—but none which can not be easily understood by the most ignorant per- 
sons who can read. 



AUMLSJNTAO TOR 1848, 

g 1 if/ie day of the month and week, and the rising and setting of the Sun 
every Saturday, in the Meridian of Washington. 



















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States. The first, of the sun, March 5th, will be visible only in the northern part 
of the United States, commencing at Boston at 7h. 46m. in the morning, and ending 
at 8h. 17m. The second, of the moon, March 19th, visible about 11 minutes in Bos- 
ton, and ending before the moon rises in New York. The fifth, a total eclipse of 
the moon, September 12th ; beginning at Boston llh. 47m. P. M. ; at Washington, 
llh. 23m. ; at Cincinnati, lOh. 53m. ; at New Orleans, lOh. 31m. 

New moon January 6th, February 4th, March 5th, April 3d, May 3d, June 1st 
and 30th, July 30th, August 28th, September 27th, October 26th, November 25th, 
December 25th. 

OUR PL'ATES. 

In accordance with the prevailing public taste, we insert several plates in 
this number, and have others in view for the future. But we intend our pic- 
tures shall be, like the rest of our work, representations of useful objects of 
general interest. Such are those in the present number, the three structures 
here represented all belonging to the nation as public property. 

Plate I. — Smithsonian Institute. 
This building, now being erected in Washington, will consist of a centre 
which will be 50 by 200 feet inside, with two connecting ranges 60 feet in 
length in the clear, and averaging 47 feet in breadth. An east wing 45 by 75 
feet in the clear, with a vestibule and porch attached, and a west wing 34 by 
65 feet in the clear, exclusive of the spires or semi-circular projections. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 3 

There will be two central front towers on the north, one central rear tower 
on the south, besides a bell tower, a large octagonal and two smaller towers 
at the different angles of the building, with porches, vestibules, stair halls, &c., 
attached to the centre. The east wing, or chemical lecture-room, will have a 
bell tower, and the west wing a campanile tower and apsis connected with it. 
The central building will contain in the first story the library, 90 by 50 feet, 
and the principal lecture-room, to hold from 800 to 1,000 persons. The second 
story will contain the museum, 200 by 50 feet. The west wing will contain 
the gallery of art, 65 feet long; the east wing, the chemical lecture-room, 45 by 
75 feet, and laboratory. 

The extreme length of the building will be about 450 feet, with a breadth 
in the centre of over 100 feet. The centre building rises 60 feet, and with its 
principal tower 150 feet ; the wings from 30 to 40 feet high, and their towers 
of various heights, from 80 to 100 feet. 

The style of architecture selected is the later Norman, or rather Lombardian, 
as it prevailed in the 12th century, immediately preceding the introduction of 
the Gothic ; and the building will combine taste, ornament, and convenience. 

Plate II. — National Monmnent to Washington and, the Patriots of the Rev- 
olution. 

The most prominent and imposing object of this colossal structure will be 
the obelisk shaft rising through the centre to the height of 600 feet, 70 feet 
square at the base and 40 at the top. 

Around this shaft, elevated on a terrace or platform 20 feet high and 300 feet 
square, is to be erected a vast rotundo, supported by 30 massive columns 12 
feet in diameter, and 45 feet high ; enclosing a gallery 50 feet wide, 60 feet 
high, and 500 feet in circumference. Above the colonnade will be an entab- 
lature 20 feet high, surmounted by a balustrade 15 feet high, making an ele- 
vation of 100 feet for the rotundo or colonnaded building. On the top, over the 
great gallery, and enclosed by the balustrade, will be a grand terrace around 
the great shaft, 700 feet in circumference, and outside of the balustrade a walk 
or gallery 6 feet wide, and 750 in circumference. The entrance and passage 
to the grand terrace will be by a railway of easy ascent encircling the great 
shaft. 

A structure of such vast dimensions will well befit the character of Wash- 
ington, and the design is worthy of the advancing progress of the age. The 
present generation owes it to the memory of W ashington and his compatriots 
to construct the great outline of this monument as a thank-offering for the in- 
estimable privileges and blessings of freedom they enjoy, leaving its embel- 
lishment and completion to the taste and patriotism of future times. 

It is intended to preserve a record in the monument, containing the names 
of all contributors of funds for its erection ; and every American should be 
ambitious to leave to posterity this evidence of the enterprise, and patriotism, 
and public spirit of the present age. 

Plate III. — The President's House. 
This a plain, substantial edifice of two lofty stories, and deep basement, 170 
feet long and 86 feet wide : large enough for the accommodation of a republi- 
can president's family, with several rooms furnished by the nation, and open to 
the public. The house commands a fine view of the Potomac on the south ; 
hut is not a conspicuous object from other points, being surrounded with trees. 

Plate IV. — Plows of Various Ages and Countries. 
This plate is not only amusing, but full of instruction. The ploio is generally 
considered a fair representation of the progress of civilization ; and let the 
American farmer, while comparing these specimens with his own imple- 
ments of the same name, thank God that he lives in an age and a country in 
• which science and skill have obtained the greatest perfection, where enter 
prise has the greatest range, and labor the largest reward. 

1* 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Introduction 2 

Almanac for 1848 .................... 3 

Description of Plates 3 

Chap. I. — General View of the World,. 5 

Principal Countries of Europe 6 

" " cfAsia. 7 

" « of Africa 8 

" il of N.America 9 

" " of S.America 10 

Chap. II.— The United States 12 

Tables 1 and 2, Population, &e 12 

" 3, Imports and Exports 14 

Tonnage 14 

" 4, Sugar imported, &c 15 

" 5 and 6, Coffee and Tea 16, 17 

" 7 and 8, Cotton consumed, &c. 18 

*' 9, Estimate of Crops 19 

" 10, Summary of Crops 21 

" 11, Tolls on New York Canals. . . 22 
" 12, Coal Mines in Pennsylvania.. 22 

" 13. " « Virginia 22 

Chap. III. — Statistics of States and 

Cities 23 

Maine, Portland, Massachusetts 24 

Results of Labor in Massachusetts. . ... 25 

Statistics of Boston 26 

" of Franklin Fund, &c. 28 

" of Connecticut 29 

" of New Haven 30 

" of New York, by counties. ... 30 

" of Albany 33 

" of Pennsylvania 34 

11 of Baltimore 35 

" of Washington 37 

" of Virginia and Tennessee. . . 38 

" of Arkansas and Ohio 39 

" of Charleston 40 

Debts of tlie States 41 

Chap. IV.— Political Statistics 42 

Mode of electing President 43 

Number of Electoral Votes : 44 

Popular Vote in each State 45 

Number of Votes for each President.. 46 

Comparative Democracy, &c 47 

Chap. V. — Government of United States 49 

President and Vice-President 49, 50 

Department of State 51 

War Department and Bureaus 51-54 

Navy Department and Bureaus 55 

Treasury Department and Bureaus . . 55-59 

Postoffice Department 59 

Attorney-General— Appointments 60 

Supreme Court of United States 61 



Miscellaneous Offices 61 

Congress of United States 62-67 

American Ministers abroad 6B 

Foreign Ministers in United States. . . 68 

Customhouses, &c. 69 

Revenue Marine— Land-Offices 70 

Principa^?ostoffices 71 

Army or^mited States, Pay, &c. , . . . . 72 

Navy of United States, Pay, &c 79 

Naval Force of other Countries 83 

Chap. VI.— Political Economy 85 

Tariffs.— Taxation.— Rich and Poor.. 85 
Tariffs of 1842 and 1846 compared. . . 96 

Wages, &c, &c 98 

Banks 102 

Balance of Trade 105 

Chap. VII. — Moral and Religious De- 
partment 107 

Religious Denominations in U. States. Ill 
Annual Receipts of Miss'ry Societies . . 112 

Religious Miscellany. 113-115 

Education. 116 

Chap. VIII.— Agriculture 120 

List of Agricultural Papers 133 

Chap. IX.— The Great West 134 

Distances on Western Rivers 145 

CHap. X. — Miscellany 146 

Household or Domestic Economy. , . . 146 

Paper Continental Money 150 

Patent-Office %i 

Lightning Rods 156 

Railroads 158 

Commerce and Navigat'n of U. States. 167 

Amount of Gold and Silver, &c 162 

Coinage United States Mint 163 

Rates of Interest in United States. . . . 163 

Postage— Abstract of Laws 165 

Postoffice Statistics 167 

Abstract of Census in New York 168 

Governors of States 169 

Value of Foreign Coins 170 

Peace and War — the Difference 172 

National Reform Association 173 

Hints for the South 177 

Names of Liquors 178 

Definitions of Arts and Sciences 179 

" of Mexican Names 181 

Getting in Debt— Facts, &c 182 

Increase in Duration of Life 183 

Cold Water Song 184 

British Ministry, 1847 185 

European Opinions of U. States 185 

Items, &c, &c, (fee, &c 187-190* 



USEFUL FACTS, FIGURES, AND HINTS, 

FOR EVERYBODY, 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL VIEW OF TII%EXTENT AND POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 



Grand Divisions. 



,/isia. 

Africa 

Europe •.. .. 

North America. . . 
South America. . . 
New Holland 
Principal Islands. 



Total. 



Square Miles. 



16,000,000 
11,000,000 
3,000,000 
9,000,000 
6,500,000 
3,000,000 
1,260,000 



Population. 



450,000,000 

1 10,000,000 

250,000,000 

36,000,000 

16,000,000 

2,000,000 

20,000,000 



49,760,000 884,000,000 



Pop. to a 
Sq. Mile. 



28 
10 
83J 

4 

2* 

£ 

3 

16 



Nearly the whole of the above is a mere guessing table. But 
i very small portion of even Europe or the United States has ever 
•)een surveyed ; and with regard to population, standard authori- 
ses differ in their estimates, from three hundred to four hundred 
millions, as to the number of people on the globe. In Europe and 
North America, the population is known with some degree of 
correctness, but in all the other divisions the estimates are founded 
upon conjecture. The number set down in the table is probably 
above, rather than below the truth. It is nearly incredible that 
China should contain 330,000,000, the amount generally given to 
it ; and the writer is not aware that any census has been taken 
of the millions of British India. 

Three fourths of the earth's surface is estimated to be water, 
md one fourth land : of course the whole surface contains nearly 
irwo hundred millions of square miles, 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE EXTENT 





PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF 


EUROPE. 






Name. 


Sq. Miles. 


Population. 


Religion. 


Debt, in £. 


Prop, 
to pop. 


Soldi'rs 1 
to Pop. 


England 


58,000 


16,000,000 


Protest't. ) 








Scotland 


30,000 


2,750,000 


do. } 


800,000,000 


£30 


1 to 220 


Ireland - 


30,000 


8,000,000 


Catholic. ) 








France - 


215,000 


33,000.000 


do. 


194,000,000 


6 


1 to 140 


Belgium 


11,000 


3,500,000 


do. 








•Holland 


13,000 


3,000,000 


Protestant. 


148,000,000 


24 


1 to 120 


Prussia - 


106,000 


14,000,000 


do. 


29,000,000 


o 


1 to 76 


Denmark - 


22,000 


2,000,000 


do. 


4,000,000 


2 


1 to 52 


Sweden 


180,000 


2,500,000 


do. > 






1 to 85 


Norway 


120,000 


1,250,000 


do. S 






Russia - 


2,000,000 


56,000,000 


Greek. 


36,000,000 


| 


1 to 57 


Turkey • 


180,000 


8,000,000 


Mohamm'^ 


3,000,000 


1 


1 to 92 


Austria - 


260,000 


36,000,000 


Catholic. 


125,000,000 


3£ 


1 to 118 


Italy • • 


120,000 


20,000.000 


do. 


40,000,000 


2 


1 to 400 


Naples, or 
Two Sicilies 


I 40,000 


7,000,000 


do. 


18,000,000 


H 


1 to 240 


Sardinia 


29,000 


4,000,000 


do. 


4,500,000 


i 


1 to 165 


Spain - 


180,000 


10,000,000 


do. 


70,000,000 


7 


1 to 270 


Portugal 


34,000 


3,500,000 


do. 


5,500,000 


n 


1 to 139 


Switzerland 


15,000 


2,000,000 


Prot., Cath. 


- 


- 


1 to 60 


Germany • 


90,000 


14,000,000 


do. 


22,000,000 


H 


1 to 120 


Greece - 


16,000 


750,000 


Greek. 









Notes. — 1. The population and the amount of debt are given from the 
latest information within the knowledge of the writer. The population given 
to Europe, in the former table, is founded upon the statements of the best 
geographers, who wrote several years ago ; since then, several countries are 
known to have rapidly increased, which will account for the difference. 

2. The religion of a state is set down to that sect which embraces the ma- 
jority of the population, and which is, also, generally the religion of the gov- 
ernment. 

3. The population to a square mile may easily be found, by dividing the 
number of people by the number of square miles. 



Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, are called 
the Jive great powers. Of these, Great Britain is far ahead of 
the others in commerce, knowledge, wealth, and power. Russia 
is a great empire, making rapid progress- in intelligence, indus- 
try, arts, civilization, and wealth ; but more than three fourths 
of its population are still slaves, or serfs, bought and sold with 
the land, and in a state of great ignorance and degradation. 

The governments of Europe are so nearly alike, and so much 
autocratic, that there is no need of a table to designate them. 
Great Britain and France are the only nations of note which have 
properly representative governments. Spain, although nominally 
so, has long been in a state of anarchy ; the success of a military 
chieftain, or a talented civilian, making him, for the time being, 
the leader and controller of the state. Switzerland is republican 
in name, but has very little title to the appellation. The other 



AND POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 7 

countries are governed by emperors, kings, or dukes, who are 
nearly or quite absolute in their own dominions. Germany is 
divided into thirty-seven small states (kingdoms and dukedoms) 
and free cities, which are independent of each other, but are all 
represented in the diet of the Germanic confederation, an assem- 
bly which meets at Frankfort to consult and provide for the gen- 
eral welfare. The largest states are : Bavaria, 31,000 square miles, 
population 3,600,000 ; Wurtemburg, 8,000 square miles, popula- 
tion 1,500,000 ; Baden, 5,800 square miles, population 1,100,000 ; 
Saxony, 5,690 square miles, population 1,300,000 ; Hanover, 
15,000 square miles, population 1,600,000 ; Hesse, Darmstadt, 
Mecklenberg, &c. Lichenstein, the smallest of these states, con- 
tains 52 square miles, and a population of 6,000 — about equal to a 
township in the United States — and governed by a duke. 

Italy (except Sardinia and Naples) is also divided into a num- 
ber of states, the principal of which are the papal territories, gov- 
erned by the pope ; Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, governed by 
dukes. (Lombardy, in the northeast part of Italy, is a province 
of Austria.) All these states are under the influence and control 
of Austria, which alone probably prevents them from revolution- 
izing themselves. 



PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF ASIA. 



Name. 



Turkey 

Siberia 

Persia 

East Persia, or Cabul. 
Independent Tartary. . 

China 

Chinese Tartary 

Thibet 

Japan 

Arabia 

Hindostan 

Burmah 

Siam 



Square miles. 



500,000 
5,500,000 

480,000 
* 400,000 

1,500,000 

2,000,000 

1,000,000 

200,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

300,000 

100,000 



Population. 



12,000,000 

4,000,000 

10,000,000 

14,000,000 

7,000,000 

'350,000,000 

6,000,000 

12,000,000 

*30,000,000 

10,000,000 

120,000,000 

12,000,000 

3,000,000 



There are several small kingdoms east of Siam, viz. : Anam, Cochin 
China, Tonkin, Cambodia, Siampa, Laos, whose geography is very im- 
perfectly known. 

♦Variously estimated— China, 150,000,000 to 350,000,000; Japan, 
15,000,000 to 30,000,000. / 



Asia, the cradle of the human race, is almost entirely in a 
state of semi-barbarism. The governments are all despotic, ex- 



8 GENERAL VIEW OF THE EXTENT 

cept Hindostan, which is, in fact, a colony of Great Britain, and 
Arabia, which is inhabited by roving tribes, and governed by chiefs, 
in the patriarchal state. Siberia belongs to Russia. 

The religion of Asia is altogether pagan or Mohammedan, if we 
except the Armenians, JSTestorians, and a few other sects of nom- 
inal Christians, in the western part ; and the converts to Chris- 
tianity through the labors of missionaries from Europe and the 
United States, who are now ardently engaged in extending the 
knowledge of the Bible in those countries where its original au- 
thors first proclaimed its doctrines. 

Asia contains about one third of the land on the globe, and 
probably more than one half of its inhabitants, although one half 
of its population is on one eighth of its surface. China and India 
are densely peopled, while the immense middle region, comprising 
Tartary, is mostly a desert of sandy plains, or rocky mountains ; 
and its northern portion, Siberia, is chiefly a waste of ice and 
snow. 



The nations of Africa can hardly be enumerated in a table. 
Barbary, including Morocco, Tunis, Tripoli, together with Algiers 
and Egypt, comprises the northern countries of this continent, and 
are despotic in government and Mohammedan in religion. Algiers 
was taken by the French ten years ago, who have been engaged 
ever since in endeavoring to subdue its warlike inhabitants ; but 
they hold it even now at the edge of the sword. 

Sahara is a barren desert of sand, as large as the whole United 
States and territories. 

Nubia and Abyssinia, on the east, were once Christian coun- 
tries, but have again sunk into barbarism, nearly on a level with 
their pagan neighbors. The rest of Africa down to the cape, is 
very imperfectly known in its geography, population, and social 
condition. It is said the Portuguese, who in the sixteenth centu- 
ry had large trading establishments on both coasts, traversed the 
country from Congo to Mozambique, but no records of their trav- 
els are extant. This great central region is inhabited by almost 
innumerable tribes and nations of the negro race, more or less 
powerful, whose principal employment, it appears, is to make 
war upon, subdue, plunder, and enslave, each other. In this way 
small tribes are conquered and annexed to larger states, which in 
their turn are revolutionized by internal rebellion. The will of 
the strongest is the law of Africa. Millions and tens of millions 
of her inhabitants have been torn from her shores to toil and labor 
for the white man ; and yet it is beyond question true, that the 
African slave in America is in a better condition, morally, politi- 
cally, and physically, than his native brethren ever were in Afri- 
ca. — This part of the continent is rich in tropical productions, but 
its climate is generally fatal to the whites,, 



AND POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 



9 



Liberia is a small colony, of about 300 miles in extent on the 
coast, founded by the American Colonization Society, for the set- 
tlement of recaptured slaves, and for free negroes and emanci- 
pated slaves from the United States. This colony surTered much 
at first from sickness, attacks of natives, and the indolence of its 
inhabitants, but is now rapidly increasing in population and 
wealth ; and in the cultivation of coffee, sugar, rice, fruits, and val- 
uable tropical productions. Liberia offers the surest and best asy- 
lum for the enslaved and degraded African. 

The colony of the Cape (Good Hope), at the southern extrem- 
ity of Africa, is a flourishing^British colony, enjoying a temperate 
climate in the southern hemisphere, possessing a rich soil and 
great advantages for commerce, and is destined to be, at a distant 
day, a powerful nation, with English institutions and language. 



PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Name. 



Canada, East and West. . . . 

New Brunswick 

Nova Scotia 

Northwest British Territory 

Greenland 

West Indies 

Russian America 

United States 

United States Territory. 

Oregon 

Mexico 

Guatemala 



Square miles. 


Population. 


350,000 


1,200,000 


28,000 


100,000 


16,000 


200,000 


2,000,000 


60,000 


- 


10,000 


100,000 


3,000,000 


- 


50,000 


1,250,000 


20,000,000 


1,500,000 


150,000 


450,000 


50,000 


1,500,000 


8,000,000 


200,000 


2,000,000 



One third of North America, including the British and Rus- 
sian territories and Greenland, is like Lapland in Europe, and 
Siberia in Asia, a barren, cheerless waste, covered with snow and 
ice the greater part of the year. The Canadas, United States, and 
Mexico, are all susceptible of extensive cultivation, and capable 
of producing all the fruits of the temperate and tropical climates. 
Guatemala is rich in its products, but hot and unhealthy, and ex- 
posed to frequent earthquakes. 

The natural resources of the West India islands are almost in- 
calculable. Cuba is the chief support of old Spain. With a ter- 
ritory about as large as New York or Tennessee, it might produce 
sugar and coffee enough for the consumption of Europe and Amer- 
ica ; but most of it is yet in a state of nature. Porto Rico, not so 
large as Connecticut, exports from its partial cultivation more than 
$1,000,000 value annually. Hayti, while it belonged to France, 



10 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE EXTENT 



exported $25,000,000 ; under the government of the independent 
Haytians, the sugar and coffee estates have been turned into pas- 
tures, and the exports amount to about four millions annually. 
The value of exports from Jamaica, the largest British island, is, 
or has been, nearly twenty millions annually. 

To counterbalance the extraordinary fertility, beautiful scenery, 
and delightful climate, of these islands, they are subject in the 
summer season to fatal fevers, terrible hurricanes, and more ter- 
rible earthquakes. The destiny of these islands will undoubtedly 
be, to fall into the possession of the African race. The British 
emancipation act has had a tendency to this result, and Cuba is 
kept in its political position only by the mutual jealousy of two 
or three great maritime nations, as Spain could not hold it a day 
in a war with England or other naval power. 

The government of the British colonies, and of the West Indies 
(except Hayti), is colonial ; of the United States, republican ; 
of Mexico and Guatemala, uncertain — for, although nominally 
republican, revolutions are so frequent, that a new administration 
is sometimes out of date sooner than an almanac. 

The religion of those countries which speak the English lan- 
guage is protestant ; of those which speak the Spanish and French, 
catholic ; of the Indian tribes, chiefly pagan. 



PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 



Name. 



New Grenada 

Venezuela ...» 

Equador 

Guiana 

Brazil 

Peru 

Bolivia 

La Plata, or "Argentine Republic," or 

Buenos Ayres 

Paraguay 

Chili 

Patagonia 



Sqnare miles. 



700,000 
500,000 
130,000 
150,000 
2,500,000 
400,000 
400,000 

800,000 
100,000 
170,000 
300,000 



Population, 



2,000,000 
1,000,000 
600,000 
250,000 
5,000,000 
1,500,000 
1,200,000 

2,000,000 

150,000 

1,500,000 

30,000 



South America is one of the most interesting, and at the same 
time one of the most forbidding, portions of the globe. The greater 
part of its soil is naturally of unbounded fertility, capable, if prop- 
erly cultivated, of supporting the population of the world. The 
potato, wheat, maize, rice, all the necessaries, and also most of the 
luxuries, of life, flourish on its soil. But from the enervation 
erT< Its of its climate, the pestilential air of its marshes, and the 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE EXTENT, ETC., OF THE WORLD. 11 

indolence of its population, it will probably long remain, to a great 
extent, as at present, chiefly a wilderness 01 forests, plains, marshes, 
and mountains. The coasts and low grounds, especially within 
the tropics, are generally unhealthy, except to natives ; and on the 
west, the region of mountains is at all times subject to terrific 
earthquakes. The scenery, composed of the highest mountains 
and largest rivers, is grand and awful ; while its situation under 
a tropical sun, combined with the fertility of its soil, makes it 
produce the greatest variety of trees and animals, and of the most 
beautiful flowers. It has been celebrated for more than two hun- 
dred years for its mines of silver and gold, which have made all 
the civilized world rich, but have proved an abiding curse to their 
own native countries. 

The government of Brazil is a monarchy, styled the empire of 
Brazil, and governed by a branch of the royal family of Portugal. 
Guiana, a very fertile but unhealthy country on the northeast, is 
divided into colonies of England, France, and Holland. Patago- 
nia, a wild, desolate region in the south, extending further toward 
the south pole than any other continental land, is still inhabited by 
its native Indian tribes. All the other countries mentioned in the 
table are republican, at least in name ; while, from their frequent 
revolutions and civil wars, the term anarchy would better desig- 
nate their actual political state. The Spanish race, whether at 
home or transplanted to America, appears to be singularly unfor- 
tunate in its attempts at self-government. 

In religion, all these countries are catholic, except British and 
Dutch Guiana ; and the inhabitants are not remarkable for indus- 
try, intelligence, or a high standard of morals. 

2 



12 



THE UNITED STATES. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE UNITED STATES. 

Tables exhibiting the progress of the United States in population, 
commerce, agriculture, manufactures, resources, and wealth. 
No subjects can be more interesting to intelligent Americans 
than those relating to the welfare and prosperity of their own 
country. Our object in this chapter is, to give that numerous 
class of readers who have little leisure or opportunity for study, a 
general view of the great branches of American industry, and its 
results in the increasing resources and progress of the nation. 

Taele I. — Population of the United States. 



State, 
&c. 


1790. 


1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1830. 


1840. 


Estimated 
Jan.1,1846. 


Maine 


96,540 


151,719 


228,705 


298,335 


399,955 


501,793 


575,000 


N. H. 


141,899 


183,762 


214,360 


244,161 


269,328 


284,574 


291,500 


Vt. 


85,416 


154.465 


217,713 


235,764 


280,652 


291,948 


298,000 


Mass. 


378,717 


423,245 


472,040 


523,287 


610,408 


737,699 


817,000 


R. I. 


69,110 


69,122 


77,031 


83,059 


97,199 


108,830 


120,000 


Conn. 


238,141 


251,002 


262,042 


275,202 


'297,665 


309,978 


320,000 


N. Y. 


340,120 


586,756 


959,949 


1,372,812 


1,918,608 


2,428,921 


2,626,000 


N.J. 


184,139 


211,949 


249,555 


277,575 


320,823 


373,306 


409,000 


Penn. 


434,373 


602,365 


810,091 


1,049,458 


1,348,233 


1,724,033 


1,960,000 


Del. 


59,098 


64,273 


72,674 


72,749 


76,748 


78,085 


79,000 


Md. 


319,728 


341,548 


380,546 


407,350 


447,040 


469,232 


485:000 


D. C. 


- 


14,093 


24,023 


33,039 


3,9834 


43,712 


54,000 


Va. 


748,308 


880.200 


974,622 


1,065,379 


1,211,405 


1,239,797 


1,255,000 


N. C. 


393,751 


478,103 


555,500 


638,829 


737,987 


753,419 


760,000 


S. C. 


249,073 


345,591 


415,115 


502,741 


587,185 


594,398 


600,000 


Ga. 


82,548 


162,101 


252,433 


340,987 


516,823 


691,392 


784,000 


Ala. 


- 


- 


20,845 


127,901 


309,527 


590,756 


660,000 


Miss. 




8,850 


40,352 


75,448 


136,621 


375,651 


586,000 


La. 




- 


76,556 


153,407 


215,739 


352,411 


440,000 


Ark. 


- 


. 


- 


14,273 


30,388 


97,574 


140,000 


Tenn. 


35,791 


105,602 


261,727 


422,813 


681,904 


829,210 


910,000 


Ky. 


73,077 


220,955 


406,511 


564,317 


687,917 


779,828 


835,000 


Ohio 


- 


45,365 


230,760 


581,434 


937,403 


1,519,467 


1,760,000 


Mich. 


- 


- 


4,762 


8,896 


31,639 


212,267 


320,000 


Ind. 


- 


4,875 


24,520 


147,178 


343,031 


685,866 860,000 


111. 


- 


- 


12,282 


55,211 


157.455 


476,183 722,000 


Mo. 


- 


- 


20,845 


66,586 


140,445 


383,702 


540,000 


Wis. 












30.945 


100,000 


Iowa 












43,112 


115,000 


Fla. 










34,730 


54,477 


80,000 


Texas 












- 


120,000 


3,929,827 


5,305,925 


7,239,814 


9,638,131 


12,866,920 


17,062,566 


19.622,500 



The estimated population in the last column is taken from the last Patent 
office report. We have inserted it, instead of one of our own, because the 
compiler possessed greater advantages for making it complete. We, how* 
e ver, incline to the opinion that the estimate is too low. 



THE UNITED STATES. 



13 



Table II. — Slaves in the United States. 



State, <feo. 


1790. 


1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1830. 


1840. 


Maine - - - - 














New Hampshire - 


158 


8 










Vermont - - - 


17 












Massachusetts - 














Rhode Island - - 


952 


381 


103 


48 


17 


5 


Connecticut - - 


2,759 


951 


310 


97 


25 


17 


New York - - 


21,324 


20,343 


15,017 


10,088 


75 


4 


New Jersey - - 


11,423 


12,422 


10,851 


7,657 


2,254 


674 


Pennsylvania - - 


3,737 


1,706 


795 


211 


403 


64 


Delaware - - - 


8,887 


6,153 


4,177 


4,509 


3,292 


2,605 


Maryland - - - 


103,036 


105,635 


111,502 


107,398 


102,294 


89,495 


Dist. of Columbia 


- 


3,244 


5,395 


6,377 


6,L19 


4,694 


Virginia - - - 


203,427 


345,796 


392,518 


425,153 


469,757 


448,987 


North Carolina - 


100,572 


133,296 


168,824 


295,017 


245,601 


245,817 


South Carolina - 


107,094 


146,151 


196,365 


258,475 


315,401 


327,038 


Georgia - - • 


29,264 


59,404 


105,218 


149,656 


217,531 


280,944 


Alabama - • - 








41,879 


117,549 


253,532 


Mississippi • - 


- 


3,489 


17,088 


32,814 


65,659 


195,211 


Louisiana - - - 






34,660 


69,064 


109,588 


168,452 


Arkansas - - - 








1,617 


4,576 


19,935 


Tennessee - • 


3,417 


13,584 


44,535 


80,107 


141,603 


183,059 


Kentucky - - - 


11,830 


40,343 


80,561 


126,732 


165,213 


182,258 


Ohio 












3 


Michigan - - - 






24 


. 


32 




Indiana - . - • - 


. 


135 


237 


190 


. 


3 


Illinois .... 






168 


917 


747 


331 


Missouri - • - 


- 


. 


3,011 


10,222 


25,081 


58,240 


Wisconsin • • - 












11 


Iowa .... 












16 


Florida .... 
Total- - . - 










15,501 
2,009,031 


25,717 


697,897 


S93.041 


1,191,364 


1,538,064 


2,487,113 



Table III. — Value of United States Imports and Exports, and 
amount of Tonnage, at different periods. 

Note. — It was intended to give (in this and the three follow- 
ing tables] the amounts for every year from 1791, but reflection 
led us to ctoubt whether so great a mass of figures would be either 
useful or popular ; besides a friend at our elbow suggests, " the 
people hate figures." We have, therefore, judged it most proper 
not to burden the reader with so much detail ; but by giving the 
items or amounts for a few of the first years after the government 
was formed, and also a few late years, omitting the intervening 
time, the main object will be -effected, namely, of showing the 
progress that has been made in national commerce. 



14 



THE UNITED STATES. 



Table III.— Value o 


/ United States Imports and Exports. 


Year. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Excess of imp'ts. 


Excess of exp'ts. 


1791 - 


$52,000,000 


$19,012,041 


$32,987,959 




1792 - 


31,500,000 


20,753,098 


10,746,902 




1793 - 


31,100,000 


26,109,572 


4,990,428 




1794 - 


34,600,000 


33,026,233 


1,573,767 




1795 - 


69,756,268 


47,989,472 


21,766,796 




1796 - 


81,436,164 


67,064,097 


14,372,067 




# # 


# # 


# # 


# # 




1840 - 


107,141,519 


131,571,950 


- 


$26,766,059 


1841 - 


127,946,177 


121,851,803 


6,094,374 




1842 - 


100,162,087 


104,691,534 


- 


4,529,447 


1843 - 


^64,753,799 


84,346,480 


- 


19,592,681 


1844 - 


108,434,702 


111,128,279 


- 


2,693,577 


1845 - 


117,254,564 


114,644,606 


2,609,958 




1846 - 


121,691,797 


113,488,516 


8,203,281 





nine months, the time of closing the 
September to 30th June. 



fiscal year being changed from 



*For 
the 30 th 

On examination of the tables of imports and exports, it is found 
that the United States have, since 1790 (57 years), imported more 
goods than they have exported, to the amount of 750,000,000 of 
dollars ! Although our table shows an excess of exports since 
1840, yet during the ten years previous the imports overbalanced 
the exports more than 230,000,000. How all this can be recon- 
ciled with the continual increase of the country in wealth and 
Eopulation, is a question for political economists to solve. Per- 
aps the article headed balance of trade, in this work, will throw 
some light on the subject. 

On the other hand, the results of British commerce are exactly 
the reverse of ours. In 88 years, from 1700 to 1787, England 
exported more value than she imported, to the amount of fourteen 
hundred millions of dollars ; and this difference in favor of her 
exports has been constantly increasing since that time. She ex- 
ports manufactured goods, to which she has given accumulated 
value by her labor, while our exports are chiefly the raw mate- 
rial, the products of our fertile soil and cheap slave labor. 

- Amount of Tonnage at several periods. 

Year. Tons. 

1791 502,146 

1800 972,402 

1810 1,424,783 

1820 1,280,166 

1830 1,191,776 

1840 - * - - - 2,180,764 



Year. Tons. 

1841 2,130,744 

1842 2,092,390 

1843 2,158,602 

1844 2,280,095 

1845 2,417,001 

1846 -..,.. 2,562,084 



THE UNITED STATES. 



15 



Table IV. — Quantity of Sugar imported at different periods, 
with the value and rate of duty in each year. 



Year. 


No. Pounds. 


Value. 


Rate of duty. 


1790 - 


22,719,066 


- 


14, 


24, and 5 cents per pound. 


1791 - 


21,919,066 


- 




do. do. 


1792 - 


22,499,588 


- 




do. do. 


1793 - 


37,294,988 


- 




do. do. 


1794 - 


33,645,772 


- 


14, 


2|, and 6 cents per pound. 


# # 


# # 


# # 




# # # 


1841 - 


184,264,881 


$8,802,708 


Compromise act. 


1842 - 


173,863,555 


6,503,434 




do. 


1843 - 


^71,335,131 


2,532,279 


2J, 


4, and 6 cents per pound. 


1844 - 


186,804,578 


7,195,700 




do. do. 


1845 - 


115,664,840 


4,790,555 




do. do. 


1846 - 


128,028,875 


5,447,257 




do. do. 



* For nine months. 

The figures under the head " rate of duty," indicate the duties 
on different qualities of sugar, as brown, white, and refined. 



Sugar crop of Louisiana, since 1832. 



Year. 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 



Hhds. 
70,000 
80,000 
100,000 
30,000 
70,000 



Year. Hhds. 

1840 87,000 

1841 90,000 

1842 140,000 

1843 100,000 

1844 200,000 

1845 

1846 181,500 



1837 65,000 

1838 - - - - - -, 70,000 

1839 ------ 115,000 

[Rather an uncertain crop, but showing great progress during 
the period.] A hogshead of Louisiana sugar weighs over 1,000 
pounds on an average. 

These two tables of the importation and cultivation of sugar ex- 
hibit in a striking manner the increasing commerce and produc- 
tion of our own country, and the increased ability of its citizens 
to purchase for consumption. The average quantity of sugar im- 
ported annually for the first five years, from 1790, was about 
twenty-seven and a half million pounds, which would give to 
every consumer an average of 7 pounds, allowing the population 
to have been four millions ; while for the five years following 1840, 
the average quantity imported and produced at home was over 
270,000,000 of pounds annuallv, giving to everv individual in the 

2* 



16 



THE UNITED STATES. 



Union — in a population of twenty millions — an average of 14 
pounds. — Thus it will be seen that, while the population has in- 
creased fivefold in fifty <six years, the quantity of sugar is nearly 
tenfold greater, and its consumption has been doubled. 

The progress of sugar cultivation in Louisiana affords evidence 
that enterprise is a universal trait of American character, and not 
confined to the northern, or western, or any particular section. In 
1796 (fifty years ago), the first experiment in making sugar from 
cane was undertaken, near New Orleans, but with many mis- 
givings. The exclamation, " It grains ! it grains /" indicating 
that the experiment was successful, ran through the country, and 
produced little less excitement among the population than a re- 
cent victory over the Mexicans. The business was extended 
gradually until 1830, since which it has increased very rapidly. 
In 1825, the crop of sugar made in St. Mary was taken to New 
Orleans in a keelboat of 40 tons ; in 1845, the crop in the same 
parish was 20,000 hogsheads, or more than 10,000 tons ! Louis- 
iana is capable of supplying the Union with cane sugar. Its cul- 
tivation is also being extended along the gulf eastward, and west- 
ward into Texas. 



Table V. 



-Quantity of Coffee imported, the value, and the rate 
of duty. 



Year. 


No. Pounds. 


Value. 


Duty. 


Value 
per lb. 


1790 - - 


4,150,754 


_ 


4 cents 


per pound. 




1791 - - 


2,588,970 


- 


Do. 


do. 




1792 - - 


4,769,450 


- 


Do. 


do. 




1793 - - 


11,237,717 


- 


Do. 


do. 




1794 - - 


6,033,618 


- 


5 cents 


do. 




* 


# # 


# # 


# 


# # 


# # 


1840 - - 


94,996,095 


$8,546,222 


Free. 




9 cts. 


1841 - - 


114,984,783 


10,444,882 


Free. 




9 do. 


1842 - - 


112,865,927 


8,938,638 


Free. 




8 do. 


1843 - - 


92,914,557 


6,399,189 


Free. 




7 do. 


1844 - - 


160,416,943 


9,764,554 


Free. 




6| do. 


1845 - - 


108,133,369 


6,243,332 


Free. 




5| do. 


1846 - - 


132,611,596 


8,404,958 


Free. 




6ido. 



The foregoing table, and the one immediately succeeding, are 
instructive, not only as showing the increase of commerce and 
our national consumption of these articles ; but also as affording 
data for speculation on the effects of tariff duties upon prices and 
upon national prosperity. Tea and coffee are not produced in our 
own country, and do not come into competition with our own 



THE UNITED STATES. 



17 



products ; all the duties, therefore, derived from them is on the 
principle of a revenue, not a. protective, tariff. 

Table VI. — Quantity of Tea imported, the value, and the rate 

of duty. 



Year. 


No. Pounds. 


Value. 


Duty. 


Value 
per lb. 


1790 - - 


3,047,242 


_ 


F'm China, 10, 18, 




1791 - - 


985,997 


- 


20, 32 cts. per lb. 




1792 - - 


£614,008 


- 


Europe, 12, 21, 24, 




1793 - - 


2,009,509 


- 


40 cts. per lb. 




1794 - - 


- 


- 


Other places, 15, 




* - - 


# # 


. # # 


27, 30, 50 cts. 




1840 - - 


20,006,595 


$5,427,010 


Free. 


27 cts. 


1841 - - 


11,560,301 


3,466,245 


Free. 


30 do. 


1842 - - 


15,692,094 


4,572,108 


Free. 


29 do. 


1843 - - 


13,869,366 


3,849,662 


Free. 


27f do. 


1844 - - 


15,656,114 


4,120,785 


Free. 


2Q\ do. 


1845 - - 


19,812,500 


5,761,788 


Free. 


29 do. 


1846 - - 


19,903,145 


5,022,600 


Free. 25 do. 



The increase of cotton in the United States is one of the most 
striking proofs of the enterprise and industry of our population. 
In 1784 the first cotton was exported — twelve hundred pounds, or 
about three bags — and the exports never amounted to 10,000 
pounds till the year 1800. During this period great fears were 
expressed by the cotton planters that the quantity raised would 
overstock the market. In 1845, the quantity raised was estimated 
at 936,088,000 pounds, or nearly one hundred thousand times as 
much as was exported in the year 1800 ; and this immense quan- 
tity could be doubled in ten years, if the price would justify the 
increase. But notwithstanding the consumption has surprisingly 
increased during the long season of peace among civilized nations, 
the production has for the last few years exceeded the demand, 
and the price has fallen so low that the southern cultivators are 
anxiously inquiring to what other useful purposes cotton can be 
applied, or what other crops can be substituted for its culture. 
To add to their embarrassment, its cultivation is becoming ex- 
tended in other countries, and the English, who manufacture more 
cotton goods than all the rest of the world, are making great exer- 
tions to supply themselves from the East Indies and their other 
colonies. It was recently stated before a committee of the house 
of commons, that in the last 25 years England has paid the Uni- 
ted States for cotton alone, 268,000,000 of pounds sterling, or 
$1,300,000,000, 



18 



THE UNITED STATES. 



Table VII. — Cotton Crop of the United States since 1825. 

In 1825, 560,000 bales. In 1836, 1,360,725 bales. 

1826, 710,000 1837, 1,422,930 

1827, 937,000 1838, 1,801,497 

1828, 712,000 1839, 1,360,532 

1829, 857,744 1840, 2,177,835 

1830, 976,845 1341, 1,634,945 

1831, 1,038,848 1842, 1,683,574 

1832, 987,477 1843. 2,378,875 

1833, 1,070,438 1844, 2,030,409 

1834, 1,205,394 1845, 2,395,000 

1835, 1,254,328 1846, 

Price of Cotton in England at different periods. 
Average price of American, from 1808 to 1821 



Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



of Indian or Surat 

of American, for 14 years previous to 1841 

of Indian, do. do. 

of American in 1845 .... 

of Indian do. * 

The first half of the first period was a time of war ; the nations of Europe 
were too busily engaged in killing each other to manufacture cotton; since 
1815, peace has generally prevailed, and its effects are seen in the astonishing 
multiplication of the fruits of industry, and their cheapness. The loss to the 
cultivator in this state of things is a gain to the human family. 



16 to Ud. 
13£ to 18d. 

6£ to 9d. 

3| to Id. 

4±d. 

2* to 3d. 



Table VIII. — Consumption of Cotton in the United States, and 
Value of Cotton Manufactures exported* 



Year. 


Bales consmd. 


Value exported. 


Year. 


Bales consmd. 


Value exported. 


1827 


103,483 


$1,159,414 


1837 


222,540 


$2,831,473 


1828 


120,593 


1,010,232 


1838 


246,061 


3,758,755- 


1829 


118,853 


1,259,457 


1839 


276,018 


2,975,033 


1830 


126,512 


1,318,183 


1840 


295,193 


3,549,607 


1831 


182,142 


1,126,313 


1841 


297,288 


3,122,546 


1832 


173,800 


1,229,574 


1842 


292,360 


2,970,690 


1833 


194,412 


2,532,517 


1843 


325,000 


3,223,550 


1834 


196,413 


2,085,994 


1844 


347,000 


2,898,780 


1335 


216,888 


2,858,681 


1845 


389,000 


4,327,928 


1836 


236,733 


2,255,734 


1846 


— 


3,545,481 



An increase of nearly fourfold in twenty years. 

Mr. Secretary Walker, in his Treasury report, estimates the 
value of United States raw cotton at seventy-two millions of dol- 
lars, which is increased sevenfold by the process of manufacture, 
making $304,000,000 as the value of goods made from American 
cotton annually. Of this quantity, it is estimated that our own 
manufactures consume $12,000,000 worth of cotton, producing 
$84,000,0000 value of goods. 



THE UNITED STATES. 



19 



The following table has been frequently published, and yet 
probably not one agriculturist in a thousand has a copy of it. 
Every producer of the fruits of the earth must be gratified in see- 
ing what his own state produces, and in comparing the products 
of one state and section with another. We publish it ? therefore, 
as a useful table for future reference. 

A statement of the exact quantity of each agricultural produc- 
tion raised in the Union from year to year, would be exceedingly 
valuable to the statesman, the merchant, and the political econo- 
mist, as a basis on which to estimate the progress and resources 
of the country ; to calculate prices, individual and national con- 
sumption, and the annual overplus. And therefore, in the absence 
of more certain data, we are thankful for these estimates in the 
annual reports of the Patent office. 

Table IX. — Estimate of the Crops in 1845, from Mr. Burke's 
Patent Office Report. 



State. 


Wheat. 


Corn. 


Potatoes. 


Rye. 


Barley. 


Oats. 


Maine 


502,000 


1,912,000 


8,613,000 


185,000 


273,000 


1,564,000 


N. H. 


647,000 


1,828,000 


3,714,000 


425,000 


123,000 


1,942,000 


Mass. 


241,000 


3,098,000 


3,028,000 


594,000 


162,000 


1,856,000 


a. i. 


5,000 


731,000 


650,000 


47,000 


51,000 


200,000 


Conn. 


114,000 


2,649,000 


1,694,000 


1,010,000 


26,000 


1,646,000 


Vt. 


854,000 


1,728,000 


4,926,000 


321, 00d 


51,000 


3,593,000 


N. Y. 


16,200,000 


13,250,000 


21,986,000 


3,560,000 


3,574,000 


23,700,000 


N.J. 


1,050,000 


7,314,000 


1,757,000 


2,954,000 


8,500 


4,912,000 


Penn. 


12,580,000 


17,126,000 


5,497,000 


11,929,000 


141,000 


19,826,000 


Del. 


440,000 


2,713,000 


155,000 


53,000 


4,500 


828,000 


Md. 


4,884,000 


3,723,000 


705,000 


944,000 


2,700 


1,691,000 


Va. 


11,885,000 


27,272.000 


1,899,000 


1,441,000 


84,600 


8,888,000 


N. C. 


1,969,000 


14,887,000 


2,711,000 


217,000 


3,600 


2,673,000 


3.0. 


1,168,000 


8,184,000 


2,520,000 


48,000 


3,600 


700,000 


Ga. 


1,571,000 


13 320,000 


1,536,000 


64,000 


11,800 


833,000 


Ala. 


980,000 


16,650,000 


1,635,000 


76,000 


7,200 


1,527,000 


Miss. 


378,000 


2,167,000 


3,040,000 


21,000 


1,800 


1,189,000 


La. 


- 


8,360,000 


1,299,000 


2,000 






Tenn. 


8,340,000 


70,265,000 


2,256,000 


384,000 


5,500 


8,625,000 


Ky. 


4,769,000 


54,625,000 


1,508,000 


2,548,000 


15,400 


13,091,000 


Ohio 


13,572,000 


57,600,000 


4,120,000 


798,000 


219,600 


24,447,000 


Tnd, 


7,044,000 


30,625,000 


2,680,000 


221,000 


35,200 


13,902,000 


Illinois 


4,563,000 


25,584,000 


2,631,000 


143,000 


101,200 


12,597,000 


Mo. 


1,525,000 


15,625,000 


875,000 


81,000 


11,000 


5,466,000 


Ark. 


2,427,000 


8,250,000 


642,000 


12,000 


900 


436,000 


Mich. 


7,061,00.0 


4,945,000 


4,555,000 


77,000 


197,200 


4.815,000 


Florida 


- 


733,000 


255,000 


- 


- 


8,000 


Wise. 


971,000 


672,000 


938,000 


5,000 


20,000 


1,200,000 


Iowa 


793,000 


2,028,000 


516,000 


8,000 


25,000 


681,000 


D. C. 


15,000 


35,000 


41,000 


7,000 


- 


12,000 


106,548,000 


417,899,000 


88,392,000 


27,175,000 


5,160,600 


163,208,000 



20 



THE UNITED STATES. 



Table IX.—Estimate of Crops in 1845.— Concluded. 



^f-flfp 


Buckw't, 


Hay, in 


Tobacco, 


Cotton, 


Rice, 


Silk,co- 


Sugar, 


O l/CLlt/ * 


bushels. 


tons. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


coons. 


pounds. 
300,000 


Maine 


69,000 


1,877,000 


_ 


_ 


- 


944 


N. H. 


154,000 


526,000 


- 


. 


- 


1,210 


2,200,000 


Mass. 


126,000 


530,000 


123,000 


. 


- 


47,110 


500,000 


R.I. 


4,000 


46,000 


- 


. 


- 


1,250 


- 


Conn. 


444,000 


458,000 


794,000 


. 


- 


220,000 


50,000 


Vt. 


300,000 


1,139,000 


- 


. 


- 


13,740 


10,000,000 


N. Y. 


3,347,000 


3,703,000 


- 


- 


- 


7,850 


14,500,000 


N.J. 


900,000 


282,000 


- 


. 


- 


6,240 


- 


Pa. 


3,322,000 


1,527,000 


535,000 


- 


- 


41,370 


1,600,000 


Del. 


13,000 


19,000 


- 


- 


- 


5,500 


- 


Md. 


109,000 


56,000 


17,920,000 


6,000 


- 


10,240 


- 


Va. 


- 


296,000 


30,218,000 


2,412,000 


2.500 


9,260 


1,700,000 


N. C. 


- 


67,000 


10,373,000 


40,000,000 


3,000,000 


8,850 


9,000 


s. c. 


- 


16,000 


40,000 


45,000,000 


66,500,000 


7,620 


_ 30,000 


Ga. 


- 


13,000 


195,000 


205,000,000 


14,500,000 


8,430 


350,000 


Ala. 


- 


15,000 


341,000 


145,000,000 


280,000 


7,890 


12,000 


Miss. 


- 


1,000 


193,600 


235,000,000 


975,000 


300 


- 


La. 


- 


26,000 


- 


185,000,000 


3,800,000 


1,570 


175,000,000 


Tenn. 


26,000 


42,000 


37,109,000 


48,000,000 


9,000 


30,110 


520,000 


Ky. 


14,000 


123,000 


63,310,000 


1,200,000 


17,000 


6,970 


2,100,000 


Ohio 


950,000 


1,251,000 


7,576,800 


- 


- 


39,370 


3,900,000 


Ind. 


73,000 


1,351,000 


3,520,000 


- 


- 


1,150 


8,000,000 


111. 


99,000 


297,000 


1,168,000 


270,000 


- 


4,680 


600,000 


Mo. 


19,000 


77,000 


13,744,000 


200,000 


- 


290 


450,000 


Ark. 


- 


1,000 


< - 


17,000,000 


6,500 


300 


5,000 


Mich. 


260,000 


214,000 


- 


- 


- 


1,900 


3,000,000 


Fla. 


- 


1,000 


260,000 


12,000,000 


675,000 


590 


750,000 


Wis. 


25,000 


84,000 


- 


. 


- 


40 


300,000 


Iowa 


14,000 


26,000 


- 


- 


- 


- 


150,000 


D. C. 


- 


1,000 


- 


- 


- 


1,500 


- 


Total 


10,268,000 


14,065,000 


187,422,000 


936,088,000 


89,765,000 


486,530 


226,026,000 



As some readers may be ignorant of the mode in which the 
foregoing estimates were obtained, we will state briefly, that the 
persons engaged in taking the last census (1840), were required 
by law to report the quantity or amount of all the agricultural 
productions in their respective districts. The aggregate of these 
showed the quantity raised in each state for that year ; and on 
this basis, as a starting point, calculations have been made in the 
Patent office from year to year, founded on the most reliable in- 
formation that could be obtained from the public papers, agricul- 
tural journals, and correspondence. [The appropriation made by 
congress from year to year, to defray the expense of collecting 
this information, and publishing it with the report of the commis- 
sioner of patents, was stopped during the first session of the last 
congress, and of course no more will be published until congress 
shall again order them.*] We are aware of the untiring industry 
devoted to the compilation of these tables in the Patent office ; 
but as the whole result is based upon the returns of the census in 

* See remarks on this subject under Agriculture. ^ 



THE UNITED STATES. 



21 



1840, the accuracy of those returns must be depended on for sub- 
sequent estimates until another census is taken. It is nearly in- 
credible (in examining the table) that Kentucky produces twice 
as much corn as Virginia, or that Vermont more than doubles the 
quantity of hay in New Hampshire, these states being similar in 
size, population, latitude, and productions. Doubts of this nature 
will arise in examining these tables, but as it is a relief to the 
inquiring mind to have statements and figures to rest upon, these 
estimates are valuable as furnishing matter on which to base a 
calculation of the annual value of the agricultural industry of the 
country. 

We have, therefore, given in the following statement what may 
be considered the average value of each article, that the reader 
may judge of the relative value of the different staples, and of the 
aggregate amount : — 

Wheat 106,548,000 bushels, at 50 cents 

Corn 417,899,000 do. at 25 cents 

Potatoes 88,392,000 do. at 25 cents 



Rye 27,175,000 do. at 35 cents - 

Barley 5,160,600 do. at 35 cents - 

Oats 163,208,000 do. at 28 cents - 

Buckwheat 10,268,000 do. at 25 cents - 

Hay 14,065,000 tons, at 10 dollars - 

Tobacco 187,422,000 pounds, at 7 cents - 

Cotton 936,088,000 do. at 5 cents - 

Rice 89,765,000 do. at 3 cents - 

Sugar 226,020,000 do. at 5| cents - 

Cocoons 486,530 do. at 4 dollars - 

Hemp and Flax 37,500 tons, at 70 dollars - 



$53,274,000 

104,474,500 

22,098,000 

9,511,250 

1,806,000 

45,698,240 

2,567,000 

140,650,000 

13,119,540 

46,804,400 

2,692,950 

12,431,430 

1,946,120 

2,625,000 



Aggregate value of one year's agricultural industry - - $459,698,430 



Table X. — Aggregate Summary of the Estimates of the princi- 
pal Crops — 1840 to 184:5— from the Patent Office Reports, 



Product 



Wheat, bushels - 



do. - 

do. - 

do. - 

do. - 

do. - 



Corn, 
Potatoes, 
Barley, 
Oats, 
Rye, 
Buckwlr t, do. 
Hay, tons 
Tobacco, lbs. 
Cotton, do. 
Rice, do. 

Silk, do. 

Sugar, do. 



91,642,957 

387,380,185 

113,183,619 

5,024,731 

130,607,625 

19,333,474 

7,953,544 

12,804,705 

240,187,118 

578,008,473 

88,952,968 

379,272 

126,164,644 



1842. 



102,317,340 

441,829,246 

135,883,381 

3,871,622 

150,883,617 

22,762,952 

9,483,409 

14,053,355 

194,694,891 

683,333,231 

94,007,484 

244,124 

142,445,199 



1843. 



100,310,856 

494,618,306 

105,756,133 

3,220,721 

145,929,966 

24,280,271 

7,959,410 

15,419,807 

185,731,554 

747,660,090 

89,879,145 

315,965 

106,400,310 



1844. 



95,607,000 

421,953,000 

99,493,000 

3,627,000 

172,247,000 

26,450,000 

9,071,000 

17,715,000 

151,705,000 

872,107,000 

111,759,000 

396,790 

201,107,000 



22 



THE UNITED STATES. 



The following tables are worthy of publication in this connex- 
ion, as examples of rapid progress in state and individual enter- 
prise : — 

of Tolls received on the New York Canals, 
yearly. 



Table XL — Amount 


Year. 


Amount. 


1823 - 


- $190,635 


1824 - ■ 


340,761 


1825 - ■ 


566,279 


1826 - • 


765,190 


1827 - ■ 


• 859,260 


1828 - • 


838,444 


1829 - • 


■ 813,137 


1830 - . ■ 


■ 1,056,922 



Year. 
1831 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1837 
1838 



Amount. 


Year. 


$1,223,802 


1839 - - 


1,229,483 


1840 - - 


1,463,821 


1841 - - 


1,341,330 


1842 - - 


1,548,986 


1843 - - 


1,614,336 


1844 - - 


1,292,623 


1845 - - 


1,590,911 


1846 - - 



Amount. 
$1,616,382 
1,775,747 
2,034,882 
1,749,197 
2,081,590 
2,446,374 
2,646,181 
2,756,106 



Table XII. — Quantity of Coal sent to Market from the Coal 




Mines of Pennsylvania, annually. 




Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


1820 - • 


. - 365 


1829 - 


- - 112,083 


1838 - ■ 


■ 739,293 


1821 - ■ 


. - 1,072 


1830 - 


- - 174,734 


1839 - • 


- 819,327 


1822 - • 


■ - 2,240 


1831 - 


- - 176,520 


1840 - • 


. 865,444 


1823 - ■ 


■ - 5,623 


1832 - 


- -363,871 


1841 - • 


■ 958,899 


1824 - ■ 


- - 9,501 


1833 - 


- - 487,748 


1842 - • 


• 1,108,001 


1825 - ■ 


- - 34,593 


1834 - 


- - 376,636 


1843 - - 


• 1,263,539 


1826 - ■ 


• - 48,047 


1835 - 


- -560,758 


1844 - ■ 


• 1,631,669 


1827 - • 


• - 63,434 


1836 - 


- - 682,428 


1845 - ■ 


- 


1828 - ■ 


■ - 77,516 


1837 - 


- -881,476 


1846 - • 


• ■-" 



Table XIII. — Quantity of Coal (bituminous) mined in Virginia, 

annually. 

Year. Bushels. Year. Bushels. Year. Bushels. 

1822 - - 1,350,000 1830 - - 2,570,000 1838 - - 2,700,000 

1823 - - 1,100,000 1831 - - 2,608,000 1839 - - 2,400,000 

1824 - - 1,676,000 1832 - - 3,300,000 1840 - - 2,200,000 

1825 - - 1,668,000 1833 - - 4,000,000 1841 - - 2,000,000 

1826 - - 2,218,000 1834 - - 3,100,000 1842 - - 1,688,400 

1827 - - 2,118,000 1835 - - 2,700,000 1843 - - 2,304,150 

1828- - 2,502,000 1836- - 3,100,000 1844- - 2,973,750 

1829- - 2,334,000|1837- . 3,800,000 1845- - 3,565,500 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 23 



CHAPTER III. 

STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 

In the original plan of this work, it was intended under the 
present head to furnish the valuation of property, with the rate 
and amount of taxation in each state, and in the principal cities. 
With this object in view, letters were addressed to public officers 
in nearly every state and large city in the Union. A considerable 
number of these letters were promptly answered, accompanied by 
such information as was within reach — in some cases by very val- 
uable tables (see "Statistics of Charleston") — but the general re- 
sult is shown chiefly in the small items of the following pages. 
Subsequent inquiry convinced the writer, that in many cases the 
information desired could not be obtained without an amount of 
labor and expense which could not be appreciated by the public. 
From the state of Rhode Island he was informed there had been 
no valuation of property and no state tax since 1824. On personal 
application to the secretary of another state, it was stated that 
there were probably returns of property from the towns in his 
office, but they had never been digested or aggregated, and were 
of course a mass of matter in detail, but without order or arrange- 
ment. The fact appears to be, those states which are not in debt, 
and whose current expenditures are met by a sufficient revenue 
from indirect taxation, have no occasion for a state tax, and there- 
fore leave the towns and local districts to manage their own 
affairs without state interference. — Another difficulty in the way 
of ascertaining the true value of property, arises from the different 
modes and rates of assessment in different states and cities. In 
some the full value is assessed, in others less. The same is true 
of different species of property. The assessment given to some 
cities in this chapter is too large or too small, in comparison with • 
other cities of the same class. 

Nevertheless, the writer has been able to obtain from some of 
the most wealthy states (New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Massa- 
chusetts) official returns of the value of property, &c, which are 
given in this chapter. It would not be safe or judicious to base 
an estimate of the valuation of the country from data so limited ; 
but these items are valuable as a beginning, and as an incitement 
to further investigation — and being so much in detail, must afford 
very interesting subjects of inquiry and reflection to the citizens 
of those states particularlv. 

3 



24 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



STATISTICS OF MAINE. 



Year. 


State Debt. 


State Tax. 


Year. 


Valuation. 


1840 - - 


$1,137,102 


$101,475 


1831 - 


$28,807,687 


1841 - - 


1,591,677 


201,683 


1841 - 


69,246,288 


1842 - - 


1,547,102 


201,605 


1842 - 


69.220,894 


1843 - - 


1,725,362 


201,603 


1845 - 


67,219,356 


1844 - - 


1,663,431 


151,379 






1845 - - 


1,990,931 


151,937 






1846 - - 


1,590,331 


202,583 











Statistics 


of Portia? 


id. 




Year. 
1840 


Real Estate. 


Person'l Estate. 


City Debt. 


City Tax. 


Deaths. 


Real & pers'l. 


$4,054,095 


$190,313 


$1.18 per $100 




1841 


Do. 


4,112,946 


193,425 


1.10 do. 


249 


1842 


Do. 


4,158,046 


191,700 


1.05 do. 


269 


1843 


$2,132,103 


2,036,019 


193,580 


1.06 do. 


282 


1844 


2,159,312 


2,206,476 


194,216 


1.20 do. 


233 


1845 


2,290,187 


2,344,551 


194,082 


1.20 do. 





Mechanical labor, $1.33 (average) ; common do., $1 per day. 

Portland is a place of great commercial enterprise, and, like most 
New England towns, celebrated for its public schools. Population in 
1840, 15,218; in 1846, estimated 19,000. 



STATISTICS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 

JVb. of Square Miles, Population, and Valuation by Counties. 



Counties. 



Suffolk 

Essex 

Middlesex . 
Worcester . 
Hampshire . 
Hampden . . 
Franklin . . . 
Berkshire 
Norfolk 
Bristol .... 
Plymouth . . 
Barnstable , 
Dukes 
Nantucket. 



Square 


Populati'n. 


Valuation. 


Valuation. 


Miles. 


1840. 


1831. 


1841. 


14 


95,773 


$80,244,261 


$110,000,000 


400 


94,987 


24,335,935 


31,110,204 


888 


106,611 


21,182,609 


37,592,082 


1,675 


95,313 


21,166,640 


29,804,316 


590 


30,897 


5,603,255 


7,298,351 


650 


37,366 


6,548,342 


10,188,423 


723 


28,812 


5,452,300 


6,548,694 


952 


41,745 


6,744,648 


9,546,926 


445 


53,140 


10,229,111 


15,522,527 


667 


60,164 


11,346,916 


19,493,685 


667 


43,373 


7,576,932 


10,694,719 


367 


32,548 


3,500,000 


4,896,683 


133 


3,958 


534,166 


1,107,343 


59 


9,012 


3,895,288 


6,074,374 


8,230 


737,699 


208,360,407 


299,873,329 



Taxable polls 150,591 



185,908 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 25 

After considerable research, we have not been able to find the number of 
acres in each county of Massachusetts — more singular still, that we have not 
found it in looking over eome fifteen volumes of that excellent work the 
" American Almanac." Btit in the "Year Book" of Massachusetts for 1847, 
we have found the number of square miles. Perhaps some of our juvenile 
readers can resolve them into acres. 



From a table exhibiting the Results of Labor and the Employ- 
ment of Capital in Massachusetts for one year (1845), we have the 
following : — 

Amount produced $124,735,264 

Capital invested - - - - - - - $59,145,767 

Hands employed - - - - - 152,767 

The following are among the largest items in the table : — 

Value. 

Boots and Shoes manufactured $14,799,140 

Cotton goods do 12,193,449 

Fishery ,*Whale 10,371,167 

Do. Cod, Mackerel, &c 1,484,137 

Woollen goods 8,877,478 

Leather 3,836,657 

Calicoes 4,779,817 

Candles, Oil, and Sperm 3,613,796 

Bleaching and Coloring. . ...» 2,166,000 

Machinery 2,022,648 

Rolling Mills, Nails, &c 2,738,300 

Paper 1,750,273 

Hollow Ware, Castings, &c 1,280,141 

Cars, Carriages, &c 1,343,576 

Cabinet Ware 1,476,679 

Stone, Building 1,065,599 

Straw Bonnets, Hats, and Braid 1,649,496 

Vessels, Shipping 1,172,147 

Wood, Bark, Charcoal, &c 1,088,656 

Cattle (No. 276,549) 5,327,199 

Grain 2,228,229 

Hay 5,214,357 

Horses (No. 65,181) 3,451,118 

Sheep (No. 354,943) 558,284 

Swine (No. 104,740) , 917,435 

Potatoes 1,309,030 

Butter 1,116,709 

In examining the whole table (of which the above is an ex- 
tract), it appears the amount of about $23,192,703 is derived from 
agriculture, and of this there are $10,256,821 as the value of 



26 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



live stock ; $18,955,797 are derived from leather, shoes, &c, ; 
$11,855,304 from the fisheries ; $16,973,266 from cotton manu- 
factures; $10,042,614 from woollen manufactures; $9,194,039 
from iron, steel, &c. 

Deducting the amount of capital from the value of products, 
leaves $65,589,497. This sum divided among a population (esti- 
mated) of 800,000, gives an average of $80 to each individual, or 
nearly $500 value produced by each family in the commonwealth, 
including probably the cost of the raw materials. " Forty thou- 
sand females are annually employed in the factories, in making 
straw hats, stocks, &c. ; they yearly earn five millions of dollars 
by their labor. " 



5 We are disappointed in not finding the value of ice among the products 
of Massachusetts industry. It has been stated that " the ice shipped from Bos- 
ton is worth more as an article of commerce than the wine shipped from Bor- 
deaux, the great wine mart of France." Which article is the more valuable 
for consumption ? 





Statistics of Boston 




• 


Year. 


Population. 


Real Estate. 


Personal Estate. 


Deaths. 


1799 


_ 


$3,224,100 


$3,766,200 




1810 


33,728 


19,712,000 


16,617,200 




[ 1820 - 


43,298 


22,795,800 


16,583,400 


1,162 


1825 - 


58,277 


27,303,800 


22,540,000 


1,450 


1830 - 


61,392 


36,963,800 


24,104,200 


1,126 


1835 - 


78,603 


43,140,600 


31,665,200 


1,914 


1840 - 


93,3S3 


58,577,800 


33,248,600 


1,972 


1841 


- 


61,963,000 


36,043,600 


1,919 


1842 - 


- 


65,499,900 


41,223,800 


2,435 


1843 - 


- 


67,673,400 


42,372,600 


2,201 


1844 - 


- 


72,048,000 


46,402,000 


2,241 


1845 - 


114,366 


81,991,400 


53,957,300 




1846 - 











Taxes. — Amount of Real and Personal Estate, $135,948,700. 

Tax, $5.70 per $1,000 $774,907 

24,287 polls, at $1.50 36,430 



Amount of city tax 



811,338 



Public Schools.— The pride of the Bostonians is their public 
schools. It is worthy of remark, and of universal publication 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 27 

that "aristocratic" Boston sustains a school system more practi- 
cally democratic than that of any other city. The schools are so 
liberally endowed by the city, and the salaries given to teachers 
so large as to command the highest talent and skill, that the rich 
and most intelligent citizens send their children, as well as the 
poor and ignorant. The boy of the humblest laborer may strive 
on an equal footing with the heir of the rich merchant, and may 
obtain- the highest "reward of merit." Such a system is in ac- 
cordance with the spirit of our republican institutions. Those 
public (more properly charity) schools, which are established in 
some cities we could name, where a scanty stipend is given a few 
teachers to instruct the poor children, and where the poor alone 
generally attend, have a direct tendency to perpetuate distinctive 
classes of society, and should be considered as nuisances by every 
true republican father and mother. 

The following abstract or sketch of the public schools of Bos- 
ton for one year, will give a comprehensive idea of their organi- 
zation, their expense, and utility : — 

Expenditures, — For salaries of masters and teachers in the 

higher schools $89,005 

Salaries of teachers of primary schools - 29,239 

Total salaries - - 118,244 

Contingent expenses of schools — furniture, fuel, appa- 
ratus, &c. - $20,965 

Expended for medals and other modes of encouragement 
to the meritorious (besides a much larger amount de- 
rived from private sources and donations) - 336 

Salaries. — Master of the Latin and high school, each - $2,000 
Sub-master of the Latin and high school, do. - 1,500 
Teacher of writing in Latin school - - - 1,000 
18 masters of grammar schools, each - - . 1,500 
18 writing masters of do. do. 1,500 
17 ushers (male assistants) of grammar schools, each - 600 
67 assistants (females) do. do. - 250 
120 female teachers of 'primary schools in eighteen dis- 
tricts, each 250 

Several other teachers and assistants. 

Number of pupils in the grammar and writing schools, viz. : 
Boys, 3,800 ; girls, 4,002 ; total, 7,802 ; average attendance, 6,363. 
Number of students in the Latin and high schools, and of pupils 
in the primary schools, not stated. 

To accommodate these schools, the city has erected or pur- 
chased 47 school-houses, 39 of brick, and 8 of wood. 

3* 



28 STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 

Amount of the Franklin Fund, for the assistance of young mar* 
ried mechanics, $36,730. 

Note. — The following extract from the will of the celebrated Dr. 
Franklin will explain what is meant by the " Franklin Fund;" 
and its history affords one of the most instructive lessons on the 
uncertainty of human calculations : — 

— —"I devote £2,000 sterling, of which I give £1,000 thereof to the inhabit- 
ants of the town of Boston, and the other ,£1,000 to the inhabitants of the city 
of Philadelphia, in trust — to let out the same upon interest, at 5 per cent per 
annum, to such young married artificers, under the age of 25 years, as have 
served an apprenticeship in the said town, and faithfully fulfilled the duties 
required in their Indentures, so as to obtain a good moral character from at 
least two respectable citizens, who are willing to become their sureties, in a 
bond with the applicants, for the repayment of the moneys so lent, with inter- 
est — not to exceed £60 sterling to one person, nor to be less than £15. Each 
borrower shall be obliged to pay, with the yearly interest, one tenth part of 
the principal," &c, &c. — Sparks 7 Life and Works of Franklin, Vol. I. 

State of the Philadelphia Fund. — "Up to the 1st January, 1837, the fund 
has been borrowed by 193 individuals, in sums mostly of $260 each. At that 
date, the fund was in the hands of 112 beneficiaries, of whom 19 have paid 
neither principal nor interest, although the accounts of some of them have been 
open for thirty-four years. Ninety other persons stand indebted in sums from 
$21 to $292. Fifty-eight bonds may be subject to a plea of the statute of lim- 
itations, and the rest are still valid. During the last ten years the sum of 
$16,191.92 has been paid in. As this period included the term for lending out. 
and receiving back with interest, the whole fund, the receipts within that term 
may be taken as a safe approximation to its real value" — Ibid. 

Well may it be said : " There has been at some time a remarkable want of 
fidelity in administering the trust." Indeed, such gross mismanagement af- 
fords but little encouragement for the wealthy or the philanthropic to leave 
their property in trust for the prospective benefit of society; and the patri- 
archal Doctor, could he now rise from the grave, would be grievously disap- 
pointed in view of the progress of the donation ; for his anticipations extended 
forward to the vast accumulation of this fund, and to benefits to be derived 
from it, for 100 and 200 years, as follows : " At the the end of the second term 
(200 years), if no unfortunate accident has prevented the operation, the sum 
will be four millions and sixty one thousand pounds sterling — [£100,000 are 
given to each city out of the profits of the first 100 years, for works of public 
utility, leaving £31,000 to accumulate another 100 years] — of which I leave 
one million sixty-one thousand pounds to the disposition of the inhabitants of 
the town of Boston (also to Philadelphia), and three millions to the disposition 
of the government of the state, not presuming to carry my views further." — lb. 

Dr. Franklin died in April, 1790, and by the terms of the will, the fund 
should have gone into operation within one year thereafter. 

Amount of the Boston Fund at three Periods.— Bee. 23, 1836, $24,325.83 ; 
January 1, 1840, $28,441.99 ; in 1845 (as above), $36,730. 

A remarkable and instructive fact is mentioned in connexion with the loans 
from the Boston fund : " From July, 1811, to the present time (1836), the num- 
ber of loans has been 91, of which 50 at least have been repaid in whole or in 
part by sureties."—- Ibid, 

Items. — A state valuation of property is made once in ten years. Our table 
gives the last two returns. 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 29 

Births m Massachusetts, in 1845, 15,711 ; marriages, 4,863 ; deaths, 8,844. 

Pauperism. — The whole number of persons supported or relieved in Mas- 
sachusetts iu 1845, was 14,161. Value of pauper labor at almshouses, $21,963. 
Average weekly expense of paupers, 87i cents. Total expense for paupers 
$301 136. Number of paupers made by intemperance, 6,854. 



STATISTICS OF CONNECTICUT. 

Amount of Property per Assessment of 1845. 

Real Estate. 

Dwelling-houses (50,597) valued at $30,392,693 

Acres of Land (2,647,046) do. 49,121,344 

Mills (1,527). , do. 822,089 

Stores (2,267) do. 2,724,642 

Distilleries (121) do. 14,137 

Manufactories (2,207) do. 2,759,868 

Quarries. do. 202,275 

Fisheries * do. 53,670 

One Ferry. . . . do. 800 

Value of Real Estate 86,091,518 

# 

Personal Property. 

Horses, Asses, and Mules (30,656) valued at $1,085,130 

Cattle (201,450) do. 2,662,496 

Sheep (236,767) do. 243,340 

Carriages and Wagons (8,080) do. 339,945 

Clocks and Watches (34,184) do. 201,485 

Silver Plate and Plated Ware do. 13,916 

Bank Stock do. 5,210,998 

Insurance Stock do. 223,699 

Turnpike-Road Stock do. 129,503 

Bridge Stock do. 58,249 

Money at Interest do. 4,565,217 

Value of Polls do. 462,953 

Value of Personal Property 15,196,931 

Total value of Property assessed $101,288,449 

Remarks and Explanations. 

Land is estimated at three fourths its value in the assessment. 

In the assessment of manufactories, the machinery is not included, 
nor raw materials, or goods on hand. 

Railroad stock is not included in the assessment, it being free from 
taxation till the dividends amount to 6 per cent. Estimated value of 
railroad stock in the state, $3,000,000. 

Polls are put into the list at ten dollars each, consequently the num- 
ber is 46,295. 



30 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



Real estate is put into the list at 3 per cent., and personal property 
at 6 per cent., on the assessed value. The assessment thus amounts 
to $4,077,596. The state tax on this is 1 per cent. ; highway and town 
taxes, in the country, on an average 6 per cent. 



Taxes, $c, in Hartford. — City tax 7 per cent. ; town tax 3 percent. ; 
state tax 1 per cent. ; school tax 2J per cent. Total, 13 J per cent. 
City debt, $35,000. Mechanical labor, $1.50; common do., 83 cents. 



Statistics of New Haven, 



Year. 
1833 


Real Estate. 
$3,237,914 


Personal. 


Deaths. 
169 


Year. 
1839 


Real Estate. 


Personal. 


Deaths.! 


$284,865 


$4,934,985 


$566,385 


242 


1834 


3,407,001 


370,906 


181 


1840 


4,880,205 


561,514 


233 


1835 


3,727,294 


581,928 


224 


1841 


4,896,460 


562,959 


314 


1836 


4,727,182 


708,181 


332 


1842 


4,916,186 


544,166 


286 


1837 


4,940,539 


572,815 


367 


1843 


5,010,907 


556,603 


309 


1838 


4,933,222 


607,283 


231 


1844 


5,187,723 564,890 


278 


Tot 


al Real and 


Personal 


Estate 


hi 184 


A 


$5 


752,613 



City taxes for the last five years, 10 per cent. Population in 1840, 
11,390; in 1845, 17,624. 

Real estate is put into the list at 3 per cent., and personal at 6 per 
cent. Thus, 

Real Estate, $5,187,723, at 3 per cent., is $155,631 

Personal do., 564,890, at 6 per cent., is 33,893 



Amount , 189,525 

on which the tax (10 per cent.) is levied. 

Mechanical labor (average), $1.50 per day; common do., $1.00. 



STATISTICS OF NEW YORK. 



No. of Acres, Population (in 1845), Aggregate Value of Real and Per- 
sonal Estate, and Rate of Taxation on the Dollar, by Counties. 



Counties. 


No. of Acres 
Taxed. 


Population. 


Aggregate Yal- 
uation. 


State, Co., 
To'n Tax, 
in Mills. 


Albany ........... 


306,915 
750,977 
421,795 
801,231 
409,724 
646.260 
300,797 


77,268 
40,084 
25,808 
30,169 
49,663 
46,548 
26.389 


$16,353,717 
3,360,864 
2,048,139 
3,108,761 

9,852,227 
4,310,511 
2,664,381 


11.1 

8.3 

9.2 
10.0 

4.4 

6.9 

6,2 j 


Allegany « • 


Broome. 


Cattaraugus 

Cayu°"a. ........... 


Chautauque . , 

Cherqung. 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES, 



31 



No. of Acres, Population, SfC, of New York — Continued. 



Counties. 



Chenango. . . . 

Clinton 

Columbia 

Cortland 

Delaware 

Dutchess 

Erie...."..... 

Essex 

Franklin 

Fulton 

Genesee 

Greene 

Hamilton .... 

Herkimer. 

Jefferson 

Kings 

Lewis 

Livingston . . . 

Madison 

Monroe ...... 

Montgomery . . 
New York. . . . 

Niagara 

Oneida 

Onondaga 

Ontario 

Orange 

Orleans 

Oswego 

Otsego 

Putnam 

Queens 

Rensselaer . . . 
Richmond .... 

Rockland 

Saratoga 

Schenectady . . 
Schoharie 

Seneca 

Steuben 

St. Lawrence. 

Suffolk 

Sullivan 

Tioga 

Tompkins 



No. of Acres 
Taxed. 



540,108 
603,065 
377,300 
296,295 
874,062 
484,797 
564,114 
945,571 
,017,598 
325,030 
296,596 
382,263 
815,077 
773,193 
733,574 

21,759 
760,576 
317,930 
390,171 
392,345 
242,969 

11,774 
315,625 
730,511 
455,000 
389,553 
489,521 
238,532 
583,247 
597,570 
133,579 
178,371 
400,673 

21,262 
102,640 
503,894 
110,830 
363,800 
197,500 
899,000 
,738,500 
382,533 
582,662 
305,670 
365,016 



Population. 



39,900 
31,278 
41,976 
25,081 
36,990 
55,124 
78,635 
25,102 
18,692 
18,579 
28,845 
31,957 
1,882 
37,424 
64,999 
78,691 
20,218 
33,193 
40,978 
70,899 
29,643 
371,221 
34,550 
84,776 
70,175 
42,592 
52,227 
25,845 
48,441 
50,509 
13,258 
31,849 
62,338 
13,673 
13,741 
41,477 
16,630 
32,488 
24,972 
51,679 
62,534 
34,579 
18,727 
22,456 
38,168 



Aggregate 
Valuation. 



$4,149,005 

1,673,581 

9,210,324 

2,183,978 

3,663,890 

19,518,471 

12,570,440 

1,483,136 

1,475,278 

1,327,983 

5,814,614 

2,910,500 

314,122 

6,261,041 

6,625,874 

33,335,602 

1,658,000 

9,159,628 

6,497,764 

14,396,364 

3,568,185 

244,952,004 

4,938,413 

12,042,531 

15,480,848 

12,629,547 

11,607,619 

4,864,192 

5,312,692 

5,429,800 

2,831,363 

11,945,525 

13,276,223 

1,373,279 

2,356,528 

6,795,089 

2,849,218 

1,947,306 

5,822,083 

6,172,414 

3,506,321 

6,106,018 

1,468,283 

1,819,160 

4,034,660 



State, Co., 
To'n Tax! 
in Mills. 



32 STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 

No. of Acres, Population, <fyc. t of New York— Concluded. 



Counties. 



Ulster , 

Warren 

Washington 
Wayne .... 
Westchester, 
Wyoming . . 
Yates 



No. of Acres 
Taxed. 



663,321 

512,885 
492,821 
356,274 
280,182 
318,080 
208,681 



Population. 



48,907 
14,908 
40,554 
42,515 
47,578 
27,205 
20,777 



Aggregate Val- 
uation. 



$5,311,396 

978,476 

6,173,997 

7,003,593 

10,036,317 
4,157,131 
4,106,549 



27,726,549 2,604,495; 616,^24,955 



State, Co., 
To'n Tax, 
in Mills. 



8.9 
11.1 
5.1 
3.9 
4.5 
5.2 
4.2 



7.3 



Note. — The column of acres was obtained from the American Almanac for 
1847; the two right-hand columns from the state "Manual," published in 
Albany, 1847. 



'A striking feature in the above table is, the gTeat wealth of some of the 
agricultural counties, and the low rate of taxation in them. The poorest 
counties pay the highest rate of taxes. 



Abstract of the late Census in the State of New York, 



Grain. 


No. Acres. 


Bushels raised. 


Average 
per Acre. 


Bushels 
per pop. 


Barley, 


192,503 


3,108,704 


16 bush. 




Peas, 


117,379 


1,761 503 


15 




Beans, 


16,231 


162,187 


10 




Buckwheat, 


255,495 


3,634,679 


14 




Turnips, 


15,322 


1,350,332 


88 




Potatoes, 


255,162 


23,653,418 


92.7 




Wheat sown, 
Do. harvested. 


1,013,665 
958,234 


I 13,391,770 


13.5 




Corn, 


595,135 


14,772,114 


24.8 


- - 


Rye, 


317,099 


2,966,322 


95.5 




Oats, 


1,026,915 


26,323,051 


26* 





46,089 acres in Flax— 2,897,062 lbs. raised ; or 62J per acre. 
[Square miles, 46,000; acres, 29,440,000.— Darby.] Population, 
2,604,495. No. acres improved land, 11,757,276. 



No. Neat cattle 2,072,330 1 No. of Horses. 

" Cows milked 999,490 

" lbs. butter 79,501,733 

" do. cheese 36,744,976 



.... 505,155 

" Sheep 6,443,855 

" Fleeces 4,607,002 

lbs. Wool..... 13,864,828 

No. of Hogs 1,584,344 

* We think there is evidence in this table, that the estimates made of the 
quantity of produce per acre are generally too large. 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



33 



Abstract of the late Census in the State of New York — Continued. 



No. of Manufactories. " 



Value of raw- 
material. 



Cotton Mills... 

Woollen Mills 

Iron Works 

Distilleries. .......... . . . . 

Asheries 

Glass Factories 

Rope Factories 

Chain Cable Factories. . . . 

Oilcloth Factories 

Dyeing and Print Factories 

Clover Mills 

Paper Mills i 

Tanneries 

Breweries 

Grist Mills 

Saw Mills 

Oil Mills ." 

Fulling Mills 

Carding Mills.. .......... 



118 

345 

500 

221 

738 

15 

79 

7 

24 

18 

115 

82 

1,414 

102 

1,964 

7,406 

87 

740 

820 



$1,132,702 

2,877,804 

4,451,674 

3,162,586 

613,516 

115,200 

659,413 

2,500 

167,992 

1,497,038 

107,803 

369,966 

4,052,949 

805,597 

18,580,372 

4,210,713 

1,362,074 

Vx25,53£ 

1,416,904 



Value of manu- 
factured articles, 



$2,877,500 

4,281,257 

8,402,586 

4,222,154 

909,194 

378,700 

918,540 

5,000 

270,260 

2,086,986 

124,567 

702,505 

6,585,006 

1,313,273 

22,794,474 

7,577,154 

1,695,025 

1,660,881 

1,678,320 



No. of silk factories incorporated, 71; do. unincorporated, 1,608. 
No. of merchants, 20,758; No. of mechanics, 3,549; No. manufac- 
turers, 13,088. 



. Statistics of Albany, 



Year. 


Valuation of 


City Debt, 


Expense of 


Amount of 


Rate of tax. 




property. 




City govern- 


tax for coun- 


Mills on the 








ment. 


ty purposes. 


dollar. 


1835 


$9,653,108 


$100,000 


_ • . 


$33,664 


7*. 


1836 


9,649,573 


138,883 


$72,002 


33,466 


8 


1837 


9,680,531 


217,000 


69,684 


42,022 


9 


1838 


9,325,986 


305,507 


72,241 


39,514 


10 


1839 


9,707,634 


333,598 


89,365 


43)046 


10 


1840 


9,819,362 


388,187 


75,230 


41,513 


10 


1841 


11,160,863 


395,132 


84,108 


40,193 


9 


1842 


11,122,950 


435,732 


82,093 


50,829 


10 


1843 


11,187,769 


462,504 


91,121 


58,53Z 


11 


1844 


10,874,250 


431,559 


78,974 


51,476 


13 


1845 


- 


- 


82,071 







Population in 1820, 12,867; in 1840, 33,021 ; in 1845, 41,139, 
* Omitting fractions. •- 



34 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



STATISTICS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

The following table exhibits at one view the whole amount of 
taxable property in Pennsylvania, by counties, at " a fair and just 
value," together with the number of acres, and the population — 
the whole derived from the highest authority, viz. : the Report of 
the Board of " Revenue Commissioners," submitted to the state 
legislature, in 1845. 



Counties. 



Adains 

Allegany 

Armstrong... 

Beaver 

Bedford 

Berks 

Bradford 

Bucks 

Butler 

Cambria 

Carbon 

Centre 

Chester 

Clarion 

Clearfield... , 

Clinton 

Columbia.. . . 

Crawford... . 

Cumberland . 

Dauphin 

Delaware. . . 

Erie 

Elk 

Franklin 

Fayette 

Greene 

Huntingdon.. 

Indiana 

Jefferson 

Juniata 

Luzerne 

Lancaster. . . . 

Lebanon 

Lehigh 

Lycoming . . . 

McKean 

Mercer 

Mifflin 

i Monroe 

i Montgomery, 



Acres. 



337,920 
482,560 
400,000 
413,440 
972,800 
593,280 
751,360 
387,200 
502,400 
428,800 
249,600 
678,400 
472,320 
380,800 
912,000 
684,800 
367,360 
623,360 
348,800 
341,120 
113,280 
460,800 

new 
469,760 
519,360 
384,080 
758,400 
492,800 
769,920 
230,400 
913,280 
593,920 
184,320 
248,960 
960,000 
922,880 
504,900 
230,400 
384,000 
288,000 



Pop. 1840. 



23,044 
81,235 
18,865 
29,368 
29,335 
64,569 
32,769 
48,107 
22,378 
11,256 

20,492 

57,515 

9,500 

7,834 

8,323 

24,267 

31,734 

30,953 

30,118 

19,791 

31,344 

county. 

37,793 

33,574 

19,147 

35,484 

20,782 

7,253 

11,080 

44,006 

84,203 

21,872 

25,787 

22,649 

2,975 

32,873 

13,092 

9,879 

47,241 



Taxable property. 



$4,339,531 

14,669,025 

1,618,800 

4,073,824 

3,294,386 

19,874,816 

3,075,784 

14,703,067 

2,361,209 

770,537 

1,291,319 

4,980,213 

18,655,753 

1,294,796 

798,329 
1,588,628 
4,260,914 
2,881,388 
9,092,674 
8,197,491 
7,264,121 
3,426,588 

367,910 
11,600,143 
4,304,034 
2,191,592 
8,168,226 
2,142,176 

821,298 
2,498,930 
4,825,081 
27,561,973 
7,237,563 
8,367,109 
3,787.874 

502,643 

3,733,742 

3,827,454 

1,422.309 

14.298,100 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



35 



Taxable Property, No. of Acres, and Population — (Continued). 



Counties. 



Northampton. . . . 
Northumberland. 

Perry 

Philadelphia 

Pike 

Potter 

Schuylkill 

Somerset 

Susquehanna.. . . 

Tioga 

Union 

Venango 

Warren 

Washington 

Wayne 

Westmoreland. . . 

Wyoming 

York 



Acres. 



Pop. 1840. 



352,000 $40,998 

292,480 20,027 

344,960 17,096 

76,800 258,037 

371,200 3,832 

707,960 3,371 

476,800 29,053 

682,240 19,650 

510,080 21,191 

709,120 15,498 

352,000 22,787 

544,000 17,900 

532,480 ' 9,278 

568,320 41,279 

460,800 11,848 

662,560 42,699 

220,800 8,100 

576,000 47,010 

28,198,380 1 $1,724,033 



Taxable property. 



$12,005,718 

4,035,605 

2,895,758 

116,985,697 

670,403 

582,621 
5,943,678 
2,370,078 
2,141,095 
1,394,449 
5,235,053 
1,109,403 

915,739 
7,172,092 
1,166,790 
5,312,068 

877,782 
9,310,100 



$420,336,079 



Statistics of Philadelphia — City and Liberties. 



Year.I Real Estate. 


Personal. 


Money at Int. Ara't. tax. 


City Debt. 


Death.*. 


1843j$85,878,146 

1844' 87,309,709 

| 18461100,314,374 


$2,796,083 
3,147,615 
3,841,446 


$15,644,762 $237,857 
14,386,816 329,516 
17,856,278] 379,710 


$2,483,700 
2,400,200 
2,475,200 


5,526 
5,521 



Taxation, on an average of four years, $1.24 per $100, 



STATISTICS OF BALTIMORE. 

The city of Baltimore publishes annually a volume of some 200 
pages, comprising the " Ordinances," or laws passed by the city 
councils ; the laws of the state legislature affecting the city ; the 
mayor's annual message ; and the reports or statements of the 
various city officers in detail. Such a work can not be otherwise 
than useful and instructive, and it will be his own fault if every 
citizen is not well informed on all subjects relating to his own 
interests or the prosperity of the city. Five of these volumes 
were liberally presented to the writer by an officer of the city gov- 
ernment, from which the following tables have been (chiefly) con- 

4 



36 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



structed. It is regretted the limits of this work will not justify 
more extended extracts from these yaluable documents at this 
time: it is also regretted that the writer is unable, from want of 
room and materials, to furnish statistical information of general 
interest respecting other cities ; it is intended, however, to con- 
tinue the subject in future numbers of the work, as matter may 
be obtained. 

Properly, Debt, and Commerce, 



Year. 

1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 


Taxable 
Property. 


City Debt. 


Pteceipts of 
City. 


Imparts. 


Exports- 


$55,793,370 
61,861,376 
67,648,715 
69,100,311 
63,112,953 
60,113,492 
64,208,808 
77,302,925 


$4,680,870 
4,285,378 
5,325,087 
5,493,773 
5,461,229 


$1,205,359 
1,204,604 
864,244 
760,744 
685,893 
663,902 
683,040 


$4,835,617 
6,101,313 
4,500,411 
3,331,965 
4,308,139 
3,230,734 
4,163,452 


$5,756,870 
4,945,346 
4,905,766 
4,645,693 
5,063,064 
6,264,564 
6,714,556 



Real and personal property is assessed at a full cash value. Taxa- 
tion, on an average of several years, 71 cents per $100 for city pur- 
poses. State tax, 25 cents per $100. 



P opulation, Deaths, and Schools. 



Year. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Deaths. 


Public Schools. 


Tuition Re- 
ceived. 


Received 
from City. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


No. of 
Scholars.* 


1840 - 

1841 - 
1842- 
1843 - 
1844- 

1845 - 

1846 - 


102,313 
fl05,055 
108,631 
111,979 
114,069 
117,723 
126,771 


2,236 

2,448 
2,655 
2,520 
2,879 
3,107 
3,251 


$5,231 

8,111 

9,767 

9,725 

11,549 

12,835 

14,935 


$18,000 
22,000 
12,207 
20,553 
37,200 
29,400 
31,153 


$23,294 
30,418 
23,334 
30,703 
49,424 
44,841 
40,593 


1,834 
2,331 
2,464 
2,669 
3,366 
4,313 
5,087 



* Not including night schools. 

t The population since 1840 is estimated on the following basis. By aver- 
aging the population among the houses, it will be found there was in 1840 a 
very small fraction over 6 inhabitants to a house ; this number (6) is, therefore, 
multiplied by the number of new houses built in each year, and the product 
added to the population. 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



37 







Inspections, 


Houses, 


Railroads. 




Year. 

1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1846 


Barrels of 
Flour In- 
spected. 


Hhds. To- 
bacco in- 
spected. 


£> . 

If 

457 
596 
558 
515 
609 
1508 


Whole 
No. of 
Houses. 


Net Revenue of Railroads.* 


Baltimore 
and Ohio. 


Washing- 
ton. 


Susque- 
hannah. 


734,979 

628,689 

559,161 
499,501 
576,745 


40,608 
38,811 

48,282 
48,957 
68,506 


16,922 
17,518 
18,076 
18,591 
19,200 
20,709 


$142,828 
135,458 
205,205 
279,401 
346,946 
374,761 
440,475 


$77,244 
104,151 
88,645 
71,691 
104,519 
61,956 
93,936 


$33,158, 
33,567, 

48,149| 



* The city is deeply interested in the prosperity of these railroads, as it owns 
i large amount of stock in each. 



Jail Statistics and Pauperism. 



Year. 


No. Commit- 
ted to Jail. 




Daily sub- 


Pauperism. 


Jail Ex- 


sistence 


















penses. 


of each 


Expen- 


Na- 


For- 


Av'r'g. 


Farm 


1840 


White 


Col'd. 


$8,491 


prisoner. 
7.125 cts. 


ses of. 


tives. 
800 


e'n'rs. 
429 


No. 


Produce 
$7,670 


1,107 


o23 


$17,108 


513 


1641 


1,028 


618 


9,761 


5.125 do. 


21,269 


755 


442 


518 


S,194 


1842 


1,163 


600 


9,393 


4 do. 


18,461 


840 


469 


532 


7,462 


1843 


984 


514 


7,564 


2.7 do. 


17,473 


933 


507 


572 


7,093 


1844 


1,332 


674 


8,754 


3.25 do. 


19.634 


961 


532 


561 


7,843 


1845 


1,480 


807 


9,138 


- 


16,732 


930 


620 


544 


5,935 


1846 ! 1,423 


749 


8,985 3.5 do. 


17,846 


966 


732 


531 


5,398 



STATISTICS OF WASHINGTON. 



Year. 


Population. 


Valuation of 


Revenue from 


Houses 


No. of 


Deaths. 






Property. 


Taxes. 


built. 


Houses. 


| 


1824 


15,000 


$4,978,711 








! 

i 


1834 


20,000 


7,090,866 










1840 


23,363 


9,028,600 


$67,716 


178 


4,138 


427 


1841 


23,688 


9,177,300 


68,846 


216 


4,316 


319 


1842 


24,926 


9,237,162 


69,672 


295 


4,532 


341 


1843 


26,503 


9,520,887 


71,421 


325 


4,837 




1844 


28,911 


11,032.225 


82,740 


399 


5,262 




1845 


31,135 


11,450,757 


85,882 


338 


5,661 




1846 


32,330 


11,903,590 


89,277 


241 


5,999 



The population is estimated, since 1840, at the rate of 5| to a house. 
In the mayor's last message to the city councils, the number of houses 
is said to be 5,765 ; this is probably more correct than the statement in 



38 STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 

the table, in which no allowance is made for houses demolished or 
losses by fire. 

The city debt was, in 1844, $830,417, and is decreasing. 

The rate of taxation has been for several years 75 cents per $100. 

The personal property subject to taxation is about one ninth of the 
real estate in amount. 

The real property of the general government in the city is valued at 
$7,622,879. 

The following items and amounts will show from what other sources the 
revenue is chiefly derived besides taxation : Received from licenses, &c. — tav- 
erns, $3,010; shops, $1,400 ; retail stores, $3,484; dry goods do., $1,493; hard- 
ware do., $865; hats, boots, and shoes, do., $536; hacks and cabs, $1,131 ; 
carts and drays, $1,073 ; lumber, wood, and coal, $569 ; stalls in markets, 
$5,726 ; selling lottery tickets, $2,266 ; tax on dogs ($2 and $5 each), $1,236 ; 
sales at auction, $939 ; billiards, $300 ; auction licenses, $400 ; theatrical amuse- 
ments, $123 ; huckstering, $987 ; hawking and peddling, $100 ; slaves of non- 
residents, $144 ; tenpin alleys, $60 ; rents, $325 ; received from canal, $1,724 ; 
almshouse garden, $498, &c. 

City Debt. — The debt of the city of Washington is over eight hundred thou- 
sand dollars. The following extract from the report of the committee of ways 
and means, presented to the common council in 1845, will show the origin of 
nearly one half the debt. It is fraught with instruction to corporations as well 
as individuals : " Congress, in the charter of the city, conferred upon the corpo- 
ration power to raise money by lotteries. In carrying out this power, several 
lotteries were authorized, to raise money for building a city -hall. Schemes of 
these lotteries were year after year sold by the managers to a certain David 
Gillespie, a lottery dealer, who undertook to pay the prizes ; this he did in 
two or three schemes, but failed or refused to do it in the last lottery which he 
drew. The holders of the prize tickets demanded payment of the corporation. 
It was refused. They resorted to the courts of law, and finally, in the su- 
preme court of the United States, judgment went against the city, and the 
corporation found itself constrained, by judicial process, to provide for the sat- 
isfaction of these prizes.'' — " The total amount of this lottery 5 per cent, stock 
was about $197,181 — all of which, with the vast sum paid as interest thereon, 
and the enormous judicial expenses attending the controversy, has been a total 
loss to the city, the aggregate of which up to the present time, can not be less 
than $375,000." The blessings of this lottery business will probably outlive 
the present generation. 

STATISTICS OF VIRGINIA. 

In 1842, "the aggregate value of all the property in the state" was 
$211,888,508; state tax, 12J cents per $100; state debt, in 1845, 
$7,360,932. 



STATISTICS OF TENNESSEE. 

In 1840, the value of the real estate was $79,534,110; personal es- 
tate, $43,425,514 ; and the rate of tax 5 cents per $100. In 1842, real 
estate, $76,467,048 ; personal estate, $42,270,613; rate of tax, 5 cents 
per $100. 

State debt in 1845, $3,250,000. 

Since 1843, the rate of taxation has been 7J cents per $100. Per- 
sonal property is not taxed, except slaves and pleasure carriages. 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



39 



Mechanical labor, $7.50 to $10 per week ; common do., 37J to 50 
cents per day. 



STATISTICS OF AKKANSAS. 



Year. 



1840. 
1841 . 
1842. 
1843. 
1844. 



Real Estate. 



$14,532,307 
14,186,566 
12,866,487 
12,235,388 
11,716,776 



Personal do. 



$9,979,742 
9,999,988 
9,591,292 
9,854,879 
8,637,958 



State tax, one eighth of one per cent. 
Mechanics, $2.50 per day ; common labor, $1. 



STATISTICS OF OHIO. 

The following table and remarks were received from an officer of 
the state government in 1845 : — 

Assessed Property, State Debt, and State Tax. 



Year. 


Value of Property 
Assessed for Tax. 


State Debt. 


State Tax. 


1840 


$112,037,861 
128,353,657 
132,343,835 
133,663,794 
136,142,666 

♦144,000,000 


$14,012,230 
14,418,105 
16,947,325 
18,668,321 
19,206,412 

*19,000,000 


50 cts. per $100. 

Do. do. 

Do. do. 
70 cts. do. 

Do. do. 

Do. do. 


1841 


1842 


1843 


1844 


1845 





* Estimated. 

The real property of the state is entered for taxation at about one 
fourth of its actual value. The whole real property on the list in 1844 
was assessed at $107,142,152. The real value was not less than 
$450,000,000. 

Subsequent to the foregoing, a great change has been made in the 
mode of assessing the valuation of property, as is evident from the fol- 
lowing statement. This vast and sudden increase in the value of 
property is inexplicable. We are informed the difference is not caused 
by any law requiring a higher valuation, but from a change in the 
mode of assessment. Under the former practice, there was but one 
assessor for a county ; the latter assessment was made by a much 
larger board, one for every township : — 



4* 



40 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



Valuation of Taxable Property in Ohio. 



Lands and buildings. 
Town lots, &c... .. . 

Horses 

Cattle....*........ 

Mules 

Sheep 

Swine 

Capital, &c. *. , 

Money, &c. 

Carriages , 

Miscellaneous 



1846. 



$86,534,721 

23,405,915 

7,502,631 

3,786,066 

28,781 

879,216 

1,119,438 

8,741,982 

13,953,572 

965,986 

2,982,684 



149,900,992 



1847. 



$259,093,635 

55,302,373 

15,005,263 

7,572,172 

57,562 

1,758,433 

2,238,875 

17,355,958 

27,266,210 

1,931,972 

5,965,368 



393,547,821 



fy The history of the world can not probably furnish a parallel to the state 
of Ohio for increase of population and wealth. Fifty years ago the numbei 
of inhabitants did not exceed 20,000, consisting of a few hardy pioneers toiling 
in an almost pathless wilderness : now the population is nearly two millions, 
and their accumulated property five hundred millions of dollars — the third, if 
not the second state, in the Union. 



STATISTICS OF CHARLESTON. 



Year. 


Valuation 
of Real Es- 


u 

ft 


Returns 
of sales of 


u 

m 

ft 


Debt. 


Rec'pts. 


Deaths. 




• 






tate. 


$¥ 


merchan- 


ba 






S 


T3 


3 


Oft 






37* 


dise. 


15 






329 


O 

Q 
434 


o 
763 


ft 

lin 
43 


1830 


$7,061,723 


$3,021,522 


8275,000 


$148,100 


1831 


7,832,560 


" 


8,369,153 


12* 


275,000 


168,272 


278 


455 


733 


41 


1832 


7,648,395 


" 


8,278,931 




275,000 


156,737 


250 


310 


560 


54 


1833 


7,185,420 


" 


7,381,304 


» 


275,000 


174,746 


236 


306 


542 


55 


1834 


7.423.800 


" 


8,690,937 


« 


225,000 


168,064 


308 


384 


692 


43 


1835 


7,123,500 


» 


9,588,225 


« 


225,000 


171,883 


201 


363 


664 


45 


1836 


8,853,357 


40 


13,924,220 


" 


225,000 


562,205 


319 


853 


1172 


26* 


1837 


8,898,883 


50 


13,616,916 


20 


200,000 


291,590 


274 


356 


630 


48 


1838 


10,081,850 


" 


12,335,773 


" 


300,000 


541,921 


709 


500 


1209 


25f 


1839 


13,031,698 


40 


14,114,285 


" 


930,381 


527,107 


434 


422 


856 


35 


1840 


13,367,850 


" 


12,218,440 


" 


955,373 


378,810 


257 


348 


605 


49 


1841 


13,685,849 


" 


11,171,135 


" 


1,088,342 


316,298 


259 


335 


594 


50 


1842 


12,141,999 


45 


10,592,707 


" 


1,080,486 


280,175 


200 


360 


560 


54 


1843 


11,855,765 


" 


8,462,096 


" 


1,069,952 


266,651 


214 


483 


697 


42 


1844 


12,347,122 


<i 


10,646,707 


" 


1,066,828 


274,219 


188 


365 


553 


54 


1845 


9,917,352 


50 


10,487,676 


" 


1,065,718 


280,730 















Average - - 44|- 



* This year there were 392 cases of cholera, 
t 354 cases of "stranger's fever." 

In 1845, the assessment was reduced one fifth, and the rate of taxa- 
tion raised to 50 cents. 



STATISTICS OF STATES AND CITIES. 



41 



The city has a sinking fund of $620,585, and yearly increased by 
appropriations and investments. 

The amount of personal property could not be accurately stated. 
The following items are from the tax bill of 1845 : — 

632 free persons of color paid a capitation tax of $3,983 

11,813 slaves paid a capitation tax of - - - - 26,718 

386 carriages, coaches, &c, paid a tax of - - - - 7,615 

740 horses paid a tax of - - - - - - - 3,700 

450 dogs paid a tax of - - - - - - - 1,350 



DEBTS OF THE STATES. 

This appears to be an appropriate place for giving the debts of 
the states. It is a subject in which the honor of every American 
is interested, whether a citizen of an indebted state or not. With 
increasing prosperity and rapid progress, many of the states have 
also managed to get deeply in debt. " What man has done man can 
do again," is the motto of communities as well as of individuals, 
and New York, the great pioneer, having been successful in the 
experiment of making the Erie canal, other states started on the 
same enterprise, and pushed their works of internal improvement 
a little in advance of the age. 



Massachusetts , . .$6,000,000 

New York 24,734,080 

Pennsylvania 40,789,877 

Maryland 15,038,030 

Virginia 7,384,793 

South Carolina 5,000,000 

Georgia , 1,465,250 

Alabama , 12,646,023 

Mississippi 7,271,707 

Florida 5,000,000 



Louisiana $16,236,131 

Tennessee 3,957,356 

Kentucky 4,596,026 

Ohio 19,246,002 

Indiana 13,100,000 

Illinois 14,000,000 

Missouri 957,261 

Michigan 5,200,000 

Arkansas 3,617,227 

Texas unknown. 



Total.; $206,239,763 

(Journal of Commerce, June, 1847.) 



42 POLITICAL STATISTICS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

POLITICAL STATISTICS. , 

Our work would-be imperfect and incomplete as a manual of 
useful knowledge, without a chapter on politics. Hence we have 
given in a small compass, a complete epitome of the elections for 
the last twenty years, and their results since the foundation of the 
government. 

However incongruous may appear the connexion, there are no subjects 
which so much engross the attention of an American freeman as religion and 
politics. And it should be so ; and he should never forget the obligations 
and responsibilities resting upon him, in having these greatest of all possi- 
ble interests — his present and future welfare — committed into his own 
hands. On these two subjects he is entirely free - 3 and for this freedom he 
is indebted to the Bible. It is a republican book. What little mental and 
civil liberty there is in the world, is confined chiefly to, the branches of the 
Teutonic race, among whom the Bible has been longest and best understood ; 
and the progress of liberty even among these, has been just in proportion to 
the general circulation of the Bible j — witness, 1. America, 2. Great Britain, 
3. Germany. In religion, the American is free to choose his own way to 
heaven (with the Divine law as his guide) or to choose none at all — being 
accountable for his faith only to his Maker. 

But our present business is with politics. Every American is by inherent 
right and by his position, a politician. He is a coequal agent in elevating 
a fellow- citizen to a station of honor and trust, and then sits in judgment on 
his acts. The laws which he obeys, are those of his own choosing. For 
redress of grievances, he appeals, not to a prince or an individual, but to his 
equals ; those having the same views, feelings, and interests, with himself. 

The chief dangers Xo which these great privileges are exposed, are not 
from without, but within. We need fear no attack on our liberties from 
abroad ; but what can save us when sectional animosity or party spirit is 
blown into a flame of discord ? Questions of sectional interest are most 
dangerous, because they appeal directly to the selfish passions of human 
nature. It is clear to any calm reflection, that the north and south, the east 
and west, are mutually advantageous to, and dependent upon each other j 
and it is strange that any section should complain of its share of prosperity, 
when all have more than they can enjoy. If a war spirit should become 
rampant in our country (of which there is danger), in connexion with sec- 
tional disagreements, we should need the special mercy of Heaven to avert 
the greatest national calamities. 

Party spirit is carried to a shameful excess. We would not, were it pos- 
sible, break down parties in politics ; they impart life and vigor to our re- 
publican system ; but the public should frown upon detraction and personal 
abuse from every quarter. Distinguished men pay a grievous tax in this 
country, for their distinction. There has not been a president (with per- 
haps one exception), since the days of Washington, who was not more 
worthy of a penitentiary than the presidency, if his character were half as 
bad as his opponents represented it during a political canvass. 

Partisan politicians talk loudly about contending for principles — great 
principles, which must be carried out to save the country ; when in fact all 
the principles they care anything about, are the " loaves and fishes" of 
office— and such small fishes too ! Did you ever hear a stump orator or 



POLITICAL STATISTICS. 43 

tavern politician trying to move heaven and earth by his patriotic eloquence ? 
He would make you believe the world wili go rushing back to chaos, if the 
candidate of his party is not elected j but his main object is to be a village 
postmaster, a $500 clerk, or perhaps a member of congress — according to 
his appreciation of his own genius. 

This rage for office is unaccountable. It is demonstrable that office-hold- 
ing is, in almost every point of view, among the least desirable stations in 
society. The honor is generally short-lived, for it is dependent upon the 
fluctuations of party success. If money is the object, it is reckoned on the 
wrong side of the account, for our salaries are fortunately so low, that they 
can not half gratify the ambitious desires they almost invariably beget. 
Even in the little city of Washington there are many men whose income 
from their private business is larger than that of any government officer 
below the president ; — and while the official expends his salary in show and 
luxury, the citizen adds to his capital. Then throw the tyranny and servil- 
ity of" office into their proper scales. Every office-holder, civil and military, 
is subjectjto the exercise of a u little brief authority" of some superior, 
which is sometimes exerted in a manner to make u angels weep :" — the 
supreme executive is not exempt from this disagreeable position ; his supe- 
rior is the sovereign people, and his friends have placed nim in an elevated 
situation where he is only a fairer mark for his opponents. 

Are there not a sufficient number of American freemen who love their 
country better than party, to form an independent party — to hold the balance 
of power and keep in check the spirit of inordinate ambition and partisan 
strife, and curb the licentiousness of the press ? 

Mode of electing the President and Vice-President. 

The freemen or voters in each state hold an election every four 
years, generally in November,* and vote for as many electors of 
a president as the state is entitled to members of Congress — in- 
cluding senators and representatives. These electors then meet 
according to law at the capitals of their respective states, on the 
first Wednesday of December, and give their votes by ballot, for 
the men they wish to be elected president and vice-president. A 
certificate or statement of these votes is then sealed up, directed 
to the president of the senate, and sent to Washington by a special 
messenger. The law also requires another copy of this certifi- 
cate to be sent to Washington by mail, and a third copy also to be 
deposited with the judge of the district court in each state. 

On the first Wednesday of February following, the two houses 
of Congress meet together in the representatives' hall, at twelve 
o'clock, noon, when the certificates are opened, and the votes 
counted. The president of the senate, the presiding officer, then 
declares the persons having majorities of all the electoral votes, 
to be president and vice president of the United States for four 
years from the fourth of March following. In case no person re- 
ceives a majority of all the votes, the house of representatives 
immediately proceeds, according to law, to choose a president, 
from the three highest candidates.. If no person*has a majority 

* To be held hereafter on the same day in all the states, viz. : on the Tues- 
day following the first Monday in November. 



44 



POLITICAL STATISTICS. 



of votes for vice-president, one is chosen by the senate from the 
two highest candidates. 

On the fourth of March, the new president is inaugurated : that 
is, he goes into the senate hall, where the principal officers of 
government and members of Congress are assembled, and takes an 
oath, administered by the chief-justice of the supreme court, to 
support the constitution of the United States. He then proceeds 
to the portico in front of the capitol, where a vast multitude is 
assembled, and delivers an address on the subject of government, 
and the course which will be pursued while he is president. 

If no president is chosen by the fourth of March, or if he dies, 
resigns, or from any cause becomes disqualified, the duties of 
president are performed by the vice-president, until the next elec- 
tion. 

Six presidents were born in Virginia ; Washington, Madison, 
Jefferson, Monroe, Harrison, Tyler : two in Massachusetts ; John 
Adams, John Q. Adams: one in South Carolina; Jackson: one 
in New York ; Van Buren : one in North Carolina ; Polk. 



No. Electoral Votes for 


each Candidate 


or Party at the last five 


Presidential Elections. 




1828. 


1832. 


1836. 


1840. 


1844. 


State. 
















Ja'ks'n. 


Adams. 


Ja'ks'n. 


Whig. 


VanB. 


Whig. 


HarVn. 


VanB. 


Polk. 


Clay. 


Maine 


1 


8 


10 


. 


10 


. 


10 


"- ;-■ v ■ '-■; 


9 




N. H. 


- 


8 


7 


. 


7 


. 


- 


7 


6 




Vt. 




7 


= 


7 


- 


7 


7 


- 


- 


6 


Mass. 


- 


15 


- 


14 


- 


14 


14 


■ - 


- 


12 


R.I. 


- 


4 


• 


4 


4 


~ - 


4 


- 


- 


4 


Conn. 


. 


8 


. 


8 


8 


. 


8 


. 


- 


6 


N. Y. 


20 


16 


42 


. 


42 


. 


42 


- 


36 




N.J. 


- 


8 


8 


. 


- 


8 


8 


. 


■y: -~::ii 


7 


Penn. 


28 


- 


30 


- 


30 


• 


30 


- 


26 




Del. 


- 


3 


- 


3 


- 


3 


3 


- 


- 


3 


Md. 


5 


6 


3 


5 


. 


10 


10 


- - 


- 


8 


Va. 


24 


* 


23 


- 


23 


. 


- 


23 


17 




N. C. 


15 


- 


15 


. 


15 


- 


15 


- 


- 


11 


S. C. 


11 


. 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


11 


9 


1 


Ga. 


9 


- 


11 


. 


■ - 


11 


11 


- 


10 




Ala. 


5 


- 


7 


- 


7 


- 


- 


7 


9 




Miss. 


3 


- 


4 


- 


4 


- 


4 


- 


6 




La. 


5 


- 


5 


- 


5 


. 


5 


- 


6 




Tenn. 


11 


- 


15 


- 


- 


15 


15 


- 


- 


13 


Ky. 


14 


- 


• 


15 


- 


15 


15 


- 


- 


12 


Ohio 


16 


- 


21 


- 


.'-='"'■ '" 


21 


21 


. 


. 


23 


Ind. 


5 


- 


9 


. 


'■?\ -■* ■>;■' - 


9 


9 


. 


12 




111. 


3 


- 


5 


- 


5 


- 


. 


5 


9 




Mo. 


3 


. 


4 


. 


4 


. 


. 


4 


7 




Mien". 


. 


- 


. 


. 


3 


. 


3 


- 


5 




Ark. 


- 


- 


- 


- 


3 


- 


- 


3 


3 






178 


83 


219 


56 


170 


113 


234 


60 


170 


105 



Note. — In 1832, the electoral votes of Vermont (7) were given for Mr. Wirt, and 
those of South Carolina ( 11 ) for Mr. Floyd— all the rest for Jackson and Clay. 

In 1836, the votes of Massachusetts (14) were given for Mr. Webster, those of 
Tennessee ( 15) and Georgia ( 11 ) for Mr. White, and those of South Carolina (11.) 
for Mr. Mangum— all the rest for Harrison and Van Buren. 

In 1828, 1840, and 1844, there were but two candidates. 



POLITICAL STATISTICS. 



45 



r " •• - r • • ct> 


CO 


20,773 

24,076 

24,364 

29,836 

2,548 

13,343 

135,413 

23,758 

50,848 

4,769 

25,527 

12,101 

13,918 

Electors 

642 

1,938 

1,581 

4,076 

2,240 

37,167 

63,396 

17,052 

4,659 

3,400 

511,475 
Maj'y - 


> 

3 

CD 


GO 

to 

GO 


CO 

JO 

os 

GO 


.— m toosto^. MMg w^s^^ © to £ jo w- 

i— > O 1 GO O tO -J( © 4* J^ OS -1 CO ^ kJOI^AmmO*. OS_0D © J/3 
^•© 1 "tO^!o"b« ©*tO Os"^J h-"co CD "co"<l"tn"co"05''cc ^"k os©"t<£ OS© 
-3 ^ 1 I i -40)C/3?D^©0-Jwa3UiU<C3)*.Uii50)OD«!-Oi^lO 
C7« CO J © O <l ^-1 *— COCOtOCCtO ^ltOtriG0iO©COOStncOtOtO© 


P 

o 




583,281 

Maj'y - 


27,204 

19,010 

24,364 

48,238 

3,688 

21,164 

154,896 

23,873 

66,716 

4,276 

19,160 

11,455 

4,563 

by the 

no ti'ket. 

Estimat. 

no ti'ket. 

2,528 

1,436 

43,396 

76,539 

25,452 

5,429 

maj'y - 


1 


GO 
CO 

to 


to 

i* 5 
"to 

CO 
OS 


GO O 
CO «-J 

io"to 

GOi— 


Jacks'n. 

33,291 
25,486 

7,870 
14,545 

2,126 

11,269 

168,497 

23,856 

90,983 

4,110 
19,156 
33,821 
24,862 
legisla- 
20,286 
20,000 

5,919 

4,049 
28,740 
36,247 
81,246 
31,552 
14,147 

5,159 




737,711 

Maj'y - 


M*CWU >-- KB ^ tO tO tO GO JO CO ►-* t^- tO ►— 

M rfk 00 * «- tn O) "'i <° ^"^ ? WWW 1 tf*. ~-3 © QD^GDJO *-• C Oil* 

lo ©"co"cc"jo"4s« ©"cc"co "bs "os"© Iri^^^^^bi^^-'t'otolo^to 

CO GO CO GO GOO tn OS GO GO i— CO tO OS f» CO ►-- CO >£»• OS >— CO CO tO CO 
CO O -Jl CO h- tn tn tO CO GO tO O GO GO tO GO i— iO CO OS O CO i— ' GO O 


1 

09* 


CO 
CO 
OS 


to 

"go 
os 


to os 

k- GO 


— • i— CO CO co to to to to CO to COtOOS*-* COHJi—lO 
tO^lOGOtOOSCOOSCOCCOJO Oi ©JO rf* »— OS OS CO to tO kfe- jXJO 
T^"tO "co "©"**. ©"4s»"*-» Os"co"t»^-» "©lo^^X^l*3~Go"to"co"bi ~©"^l"cO 

ooscccoGo^cotom-Joto *— ' oi a tn -} *> i- > co os © to to © 

000»^JOGCOOCOCOOSOS Ow^O\Oivim>fi.^M<noo 


P 

w 

3 




"iO 

O 

o> 


i- to 
to -» 

GO A. 

"to~>&- 
tO to 
lO GO 


W )_4 JO 

totoji>osrf».cjios*-'i--to^ os-os-to ^tototo ~j co to >£. 
j^JO^tO 0» Oi GDJX) O^-JOJjDO J^^to^j^^ wj^ , j-'5"^ojo OS OS 
Vcooium'^w'Iooi^w 'co'tn'cj' "co ©"to"cc oslo Qo"*."4s. OS 

0)0<IWOmQDC(0- ~-3 -J -■tOtOOSi-'Osv-'Ofc— ^JfO^COi— ' 
to -1 to ~-l GO -I co •— OS GO ►— O Os^-GO-^cotOtO"-tCrf».C^rf4.tO 


p 


© 


1,128,222 
maj'rity. 


H-i >— ' tO 

tO tO ^ 0» tO tO 4S. w- CO tO tO *• tO Ji. tO ^ to C »— to Js. 

os>—jo^t^— ^-^to^GOj-i osjjo i— ' jojasjX)^ coj- 1 to c» wj—po to OS 
o o^^ > bs^"os"to'o5 > cc"co"co "^t"ao^i"cc^"o"b»"to"tolo o os"to 

rf».COO3^1COG0v-'C0>-'COCOCO ODtCW>QDMtC*-(OOi^O^JO 
GOGOOOStntOOSCOOsm*— CO tOCOtO^OS^cOOstOrf*©©'— ' 


<1 

p 

W 




CO 

GO 

32 

o 


CO CO 

o co 

i— co 

rf»."^t 

>£». GO 
CO CO 


Polk. 

45,964 
27,160 
18,041 
53,470 
4,846 
29,841 

237,588 
37,495 

167,535 
5,966 
32^76 
50,683 
39,287 

44,048 
37,497 
25,907 
13,782 
59,917 
51,980 
149,117 
70,181 
58,345 
41,324 
27,587 
9,546 


GO 


1,301,443 
maj'rity. 


tO tO *k OS (Ji OS OS *-i to to >U »*>nfe.tO OS to CO to os to t-> to Q 
JJ' j*» j— 0»j-IJjt^— © CO© OS JO J"* 3 ,*- t" J3S^— '^Xi^tO to ^J ~-J OS ^J 4^ p 

s y»"i-'"to"b»'uoo"to o ©"►— ©"►-> "to^-i ©"w"io^"^"ao"co"<i'<?"Go"bs 1 *< 
© co tn ^t os tn os co co to co o co co ao -a © *-• co co to •-» — t os •— i • 

^MOO^-JMOU-JW*. tO©^GOCOGrtOtOtOtO©0. col 


OS 

"<* 

t* 
CO 


4,862 

4,161 

3,954 

10,959 

1,943 

15,812 

131 

3,138 

8,050 

2,106 

est. 3,000 

3,632 


g 

CD 



In 1832, the whigs had two candidates, and the whole number of votes was as fol- 
lows: Jackson, 707,217 ; Clay, 328,561 ; Wirt, 254,720; total, 1,290,498. 

In 1836, the whig votes were divided among three candidates, viz.: Harrison, 
635,726; White, 60,892 ; Webster, 41,093 ; total votes, 1,501,298. 
Recapitulation by periods. 



Year. 


No. of Votes. 


Increase. 


Year. 


No. of Votes. 


Increase. 


1828 . 


. . 1,162,418 




1840 . 


. . 2,402,658 . 


. . 901,360 


1832 . 


• . 1,290,498 . 


. 128,080 


1844 . 


. . 2,702,979 . 


. . 300,321 


1836 . 


. . 1,501,298 . 


. . 210,800 









46 



POLITICAL STATISTICS. 






■2 g 

"3 § 






O 



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.a a 






s iff 

QCSP^ 

W QC CO 

QC ^ oo 



^ Pi 2i §:3 

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£ « S ^ B 






£ t- © 

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^ ° ^ 

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3 w ^^ a 
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POLITICAL S?ATI§T!CS t 



47 



Extra Sessions of Congress, 
May 16. 1797, by President John Adams. 
October 17, 1803, by President Jefferson. 
May 23, 1S09— also May 25, 1813, by President Madison. 
September 4, 1837, by President Van Buren. 
May 31, 1841, by President Harrison. 

Importance of a Vote. — It has been said that four votes, given in the fifth 
ward of New York city, made Thomas Jefferson president of the United 
States. 

One vote elected Marcus Morton governor of Massachusetts, in an aggre- 
gate popular vote of 102,000. 

A merchant of Delaware county, New York, hastened home from the city, 
a journey of three hundred miles, to vote. That vote elected the state senator 
from the district. 

Members of Congress are frequentlj* elected by majorities of five, ten, 
twenty, or fifty votes ; and such an election may change the whole policy of 
the goverment on great questions of national interest. — Surely, the station of 
an American freeman is one of the greatest responsibility. 



The following remarks of Patrick Henry — illustrious for his 
Christian example and his eloquence — are worthy to be recorded 
as a lesson of instruction to every American : — 

" Whether independence will prove a blessing or a curse to our 
country, will depend upon the use our people make of the bles- 
sings which a gracious God has bestowed upon us. If they are 
wise they will be great and happy. If they are of a contrary 
character they will be miserable. Righteousness alone can exalt 
them as a nation. Reader, whoever thou art, remember this ; 
practise virtue thyself, and encourage it in others." Mr. Henry 
was a prophet: " The president of the United States will always 
come in at the head of a party. He will be supported in all his 
acts by a party. You do not now think much of the patronage 
of the president, but the day is coming when it will be tremen- 
dous, and from this power the country may sooner or later fall." 

Comparative Democracy of England, France, and the United 

States. 



Country. 



England 
Wales . . , 
Scotland . 
Ireland., 



Population. 



Great Britain and Ireland. 

France 

United States 



17,000,000 

850,000 

2,800,000 

8,000,000 



28,650,000 
34,000,000 
20,000,000 



No. Votes. 



630,721 
37,924 
72,720 

98,006 



839,371 

250,000 

2,750,000 



Votes to 
Population 



1 in 26 
1 in 23 
1 in 38 
1 in 81 



1 in 42 
1 in 137 
1 in 7 



48 POLITICAL STATISTICS. 

These three are the only great representative governments in the world ; 
and it appears that the right of suffrage is restricted nearly four times as much 
in England, and six times as much in the British islands, as in the United 
States ; and nearly twenty times as much in France. 

Another striking difference in these three governments is, that in the two 
former the monarch and the house of peers are independent of the people's 
votes — (in England the nobles are hereditary, and in France they are ap- 
pointed by the king) — and the electors only choose members of the "bouse of 
commons" and " deputies," and these only once in seven years (regularly) ; 
whereas in the United States the elections are frequent, and reach every officer 
of government, from the highest to the lowest. 

In France, free suffrage can not be said to exist. There are about four 
millions of small landholders, but the table of electors would go to prove that 
the right of suffrage scarcely, reaches them at all. A man can not vote in 
France until he is 25 years of age, nor be a deputy (representative) till he is 
30; and in both France and England the qualifications of electors are based 
upon property. 



Sending Money through the Postoffice. 

It would be a great public convenience, if our government 
would adopt the English and French system of receiving and 
transmitting small sums through the postoffice, deposited by indi- 
viduals for their friends in other places, as follows : — 

" England has recently adopted the system which has been in 
use in France, by which any sum, from a shilling to fifty pounds, 
can be sent through the mail, by depositing with the postmaster 
the sum required to be transmitted, and taking a certificate of the 
deposite, which is redeemable at the postoffice of the town or city 
to which it is forwarded. 

" The convenience and importance of this system to the public 
is best shown by the increase of clerical aid it has required ; and 
its value to the postoffice department is evidenced by the propor- 
tionate increase of the revenue of the postoffice for 1845 over all 
preceding years, and which shows an increase in 1845 of £84,000 
over the same number of months in 1844. The time to which 
the accounts have been made up is not stated, but it is probably 
the first quarter of 1845. The net revenue of last year was 
£719,957. If this system was introduced into this country, simi- 
lar results would doubtless follow, even if it should be confined to 
the capitals of states and to the cities. I hope some one well 
versed in this subject will make the public familiar with its de- 
tails, and that that which has worked so well abroad may be adopt- 
ed by our government." 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 49 



CHAPTER V. 

GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

We have given in the following chapter a more full and com- 
plete abstract of government officers, their duties, salaries, &c, 
than can be found elsewhere in the same compass. The people, 
who are the source of power, are entitled to know how and by 
whom the government is administered, and the compensation and 
responsibilities of their public servants and agents. It was one 
great object in the design of this work, to furnish a compendium 
on this subject which should be generally useful and instructive ; 
and we have spared no pains to make it so. The information 
here compiled and arranged has been collected from various authen- 
tic sources : laws, public documents, books, and papers, have been 
examined with care and great labor. 

The government publishes, by authority of Congress, a list of 
all public officers and agents, with their salaries or compensation, 
every two years. This work, called the " Biennial Register" (or 
familiarly The Blue Book, from its being bound in a blue cover), 
is very valuable as a reference manual for officers and salaries, but 
it is too expensive for general circulation, and its usefulness chiefly 
confined to public offices, state and national. We have made use 
of it (last edition) for the salaries and number of officers in the 
different departments of the government ; but the names of public 
officers are corrected down to the moment of going to press. 

It is impossible in the compass of this work to give the names 
of all public officers and agents (some 20,000) of the government, 
nor is it necessary. We have given the names, duties, and sala- 
ries, of the principal functionaries, and a general view, embracing 
the number and compensation allowed to subordinate officers ; 
exhibiting together a brief, but comprehensive statement of the 
whole administration of national affairs. 



President, James K. Polk, of Tennessee. 
Inaugurated March 4, 1845. 
Salary, $25,000. 
Powers and Duties. — The president shall be commander-in- 
chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia 



60 aovERNMEHf or trr mmm §ta$es» 

of the several states when called into the actual service of the 
United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the 
principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any 
subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he 
shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences 
against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of 
the senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators 
present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the ad- 
vice and consent of the senate shall appoint, embassadors, other 
public ministers, and consuls ; judges of the supreme court, and 
all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by 
law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of 
such inferior officers as they think proper in the president alone, 
in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on 
extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, 
and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the 
time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he 
shall think proper ; he shall receive embassadors and other public 
ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully exe- 
cuted ; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : — 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of president of the United States ; and will to the best 
of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend, the constitution of the 
United States." — Constitution Z7. S. 



Vice-President, George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. 

For four years from March 4, 1845. 

Salary, $5,000. 

Powers and Duties. — The vice-president of the United States 

shall be president of the senate, but shall have no vote unless they 

be equally divided. 

In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 51 

DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 

Secretary of State, James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. 
Salary $6,000. 

The department of state was created by the act of September 
15, 1789. The secretary of state conducts the negotiation of all 
treaties with foreign powers, and corresponds, officially, with 
public ministers at home and abroad. He has charge of the seal 
of the United States,' but can not affix it to any act or instrument 
without the authority of the president. He preserves the origi- 
nals of all laws, treaties, and public correspondence with foreign 
nations, and is required to procure and preserve copies of the 
statutes of the several states. He grants passports to American 
citizens going abroad, and has control of the patent office. 

The department of state employs in Washington: 1 clerk 
(chief), at $2,000 salary ; 2 clerks, each $1,600 ; 1 clerk, at $1,450 ; 
6 clerks, at $1,400 each ; 1 clerk, at $900 ; 1 clerk, at $800 ; 2 
messengers, at $700 and $350 ; 3 watchmen, at $365 each. 

Patent Office, — The business of the patent office is to receive 
applications, examine claims, and issue patents for useful inven- 
tions, under the provisions of the laws on the subject. Patents 
are issued for fourteen years. 

Edmund Burke, Commissioner ; salary $3,000. 

Employed in the patent office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,700 salary ; 
2 examiners, each $1,500 ; 2 assistant clerks, each $1,250 ; 1 
draughtsman, $1,200; 1 machinist, $1,250; 1 clerk, $1,200; 1 
clerk, $1,000 ; 1 clerk, $800 ; several extra clerks, at ten cents 
per 100 words ; 1 messenger, $700 ; 2 laborers, each $360 ; 1 
watchman, $365 ; 2 do. each $300. 

WAR DEPARTMENT. 

Secretary of War, William L. Marcy, of New York. 
Salary $6,000. 

The war department was created by act of August 7, 1789. 
To this department belongs the direction and government of the 
army, in all its diversified relations ; the purchase and preserva- 
tion of the arms and munitions of war ; the erection of all forti- 
fications ; the execution of all topographical surveys ; the pay- 
ment of pensions for military services ; the survey and leasing 
of the national mines ;and the intercourse with the Indian tribes. 

The war department proper employs 1 clerk (chief), at $2,000 ; 
2 clerks, each $1,600; 3 clerks, each $1,400; 3 clerks, each 
$1,000 ; 2 messengers, $650 and $400; 4 watchmen, each $365. 

The following bureaus or offices, are under the direction of the 
secretary of war : — 

5* 



52 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

t 

Indian Bureau or Department — This department was created 
by the act of July 9, 1832 ; and has the direction, (under the sec- 
retary of war) and management of all Indian affairs, and of all 
matters arising out of Indian relations. All accounts and vouchers 
for claims and disbursements connected with Indian affairs must 
be transmitted to the commissioner for examination, and by him 
be passed to the second auditor of the treasury for settlement. 

William Medill, Commissioner of Indian Affairs (salary, 
$3,000). Employed in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,600 ; 2 clerks, 
each $1,600; 4 clerks, each $1,400; 1 clerk, $1,200 ; 5 clerks, 
each $1,000 ; 2 messengers, $700 and $500. 

There are also employed under the direction of the Indian de- 
partment, among the Indians: 11 superintendents and Indian 
agents, at $1,500 ; 15 sub-agents, each $750 ; 2 clerks to super- 
intendents, $1,200 and $1,000 ; 25 interpreters, each $300 ; 2 in- 
terpreters, each $150. 

Pension Office. — The pension office was created by act of Con- 
gress, March 2, 1833. The commissioner executes, under the di- 
rection of the secretary of war, such duties in relation to the va- 
rious pension laws, as may be prescribed by the president of the 
United States. 

James L. Edwards, Commissioner of Pensions (salary $2,500). 
Employed in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,600 ; 3 clerks, each 
$1,400 ; 2 clerks, each $1,200 ; 3 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 clerk, 
$800 ; 2 messengers, each $500. 

Quartermaster-GeneraVs Office. — The objects of this depart- 
ment are, to insure an efficient system of supply, and to give fa- 
cility and effect to the movements and operations of the army, by 
providing quarters and transportation for the troops ; making and 
repairing roads and bridges, also quarters, barracks, storehouses, 
hospitals, stables, and other necessary buildings ; by purchasing 
all horses, oxen, mules, harness, wagons, carts, boats and other 
vessels, &c, for the transportation of the army and for garrison 
purposes ; by purchasing dragoon and artillery horses, and their 
equipments ; and transporting arms, ammunition, and supplies, to 
their places of destination. The quartermaster-general is au- 
thorized to make contracts, and employ agents, clerks, laborers, 
&c, according to law, in performing the various duties of his de- 
partment. 

Brevet Major-General Thomas L. Jesup, Quartermaster- Gen- 
eral ; salary (see pay of the army). Employed in office : 1 clerk 
(chief), $1,600 ; 1 clerk, at $1,200 ; 5 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 mes- 
senger, at : 



Engineer Department. — The engineer department is charged 
with the selection of sites ; the formation of plans and estimates ; 
the construction, repair, and inspection of fortifications ; and the 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 53 

disbursement of moneys appropriated for these objects. Also the 
superintendence in relation to internal improvements, by roads, 
canals, &c, the navigation of rivers, and the improvements of 
harbors. The military academy at West Point is under the super- 
intendence of this department/ 

Colonel J. G. Totten, Chief Engineer (army pay). Employed 
in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,200 ; 1 clerk, at $1,150 ; 2 clerks, 
each $1,000 ; 1 clerk, $800 ; 1 messenger, $500. 

Bureau of Topographical Engineers. — This bureau or de- 
partment has charge of all topographical operations and surveys 
for military purposes, and internal improvements, and of all maps, 
drawings, and documents, in relation to those duties. 

Colonel /. J. Abert, Chief of Bureau (army pay). Employed 
in office: 1 clerk (chief), at $1,400; 3 clerks, each $1,000; 2 
messengers, each $500. 

Ordnance Department. — This office was reorganized by the act 
of April 5, 1832. It directs and inspects the proving of all pieces 
of ordnance, powder, cannon-balls, shot, shells, small-arms, side- 
arms, and equipments ; the construction of all cannon and car- 
riages, and every implement and apparatus for ordnance ; and 
the preparation of all kinds of ammunition and ordnance stores. 
It is also the duty of the colonel to furnish estimates for contracts 
and purchases, for procuring the necessary supplies of arms, equip- 
ments, ordnance, and ordnance stores. 

George Bomford, Colonel of Ordnance (army pay). Employed 
in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,200 ; 1 clerk, at $1,150 ; 5 clerks, 
each $1,000 ; 1 clerk, at $800 ; 1 messenger, at $500. 

Subsistence Department. — The subsistence department of the 
army was made permanent by act of March 3, 1835. The com- 
missary-general of subsistence makes estimates of expenditures 
for his department ; contracts for and purchases subsistence for 
the army ; transmits funds to his assistants ; pays contractor ; 
and provides generally for the proper administration of his de- 
partment. 

Note. — The assistants in the subsistence (and also in the quar- 
termaster-general's) department, are officers taken from the differ- 
ent regiments of the army. 

Brevet Brigadier-General George Gibson, Commissary- General 
of Subsistence (army pay). Employed in office : 1 clerk (chief), 
at $1,600; 1 clerk, $1,200 ; 2 clerks, each $1,000; 1 messenger, 
$500. 

Pay Department. — The paymaster-general is charged with the 
responsibilities of paying the army. The paymasters do not be- 
long to the line of the army, but are exclusively employed in the 
disbursement of public money, and are subject only to the order 



54 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

of the secretary of war and paymaster-general. It is provided by 
law that the troops shall be paid every two months, unless cir- 
cumstances shall render the delay unavoidable. 

Brevet Brigadier-General Nathan Towson, Paymaster-General 
(army pay). Emploved in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,700 ; 1 
clerk, $1,400; 2 clerks, each $1,150; 1 clerk, $1,000; 1 clerk, 
$800 ; 1 messenger, $700. 

Medical Department. — The surgeon-general is the director and 
accounting officer of the medical department. He issues all orders 
and instructions relating to the professional duties of the officers 
of the medical staff; and calls for and receives such returns and 
reports from them, as may be requisite in the performance of his 
several duties. 

Dr. Thomas Laivson, Surgeon-General (salary $2,500). Em- 
ployed in office : 1 clerk, $1,150 ; 1 clerk, $1,000 ; 1 messenger, 
at $500. 

Headquarters of the Army. — Major-General Winfield Scott, 
commanding the army. It is the province of the general-in chief, 
or commanding-general, to see that the laws and regulations gov- 
erning the army are enforced, and that justice is done to all con- 
cerned. He arranges the military force to their proper stations ; 
superintends the recruiting service ; the discipline and police of 
the army ; orders general courts-martial, and decides on all cases 
except where life is affected, or the commission of an officer con- 
cerned. He is assisted by the adjutant-general, through whose 
office all orders are issued to the army ; by two inspectors-general, 
who inspect and report the condition of the several regiments, 
corps, and posts ; and by two aids-de-camp. 

Employed in office — 1 clerk, at $1,000 ; 1 messenger, $500. 

Adjutant-General 1 s Office. — In this office are kept the military 
history of every officer and soldier (so far as preserved) ; the 
monthly returns of the troops and muster-rolls of all companies ; 
the original proceedings of general courts-martial ; and the inven- 
tory of the effects of deceased soldiers. Here all military com- 
missions and appointments are made out, registered, and distribu- 
ted ; all promotions, resignations, deaths, &c, recorded ; and the 
names of all enlisted soldiers entered, and their enlistments filed, 
&c. In this office the annual returns of the militia of the several 
states are deposited, as well as of arms, munitions, and accoutre- 
ments, pertaining to the same. All orders from the headquarters 
of the army, and regulations, &c, from the war department, are 
communicated to the troops through the adjutant-general. 

Brigadier-General R. Jones, Adjutant-General (army pay). Em- 
ployed in office : 1 clerk (senior), at $1,200 ; 1 clerk, at $1,150 ; 
4 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 clerk, $800 ; 1 messenger, $500. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 55 

NAVY DEPARTMENT. 

The office of the secretary of the navy was created by act of 
April 30, 1798. He issues all orders to the navy, and superin- 
tends the concerns of the naval establishment. 

Secretary of the Navy, John Y. Mason, of Virginia. 
Salary, $6,000. 

Employed in the navy department proper : 1 clerk (chief), at 
$2,000 ; 1 clerk, $1,500 ; 1 clerk, $1,400 ; 5 clerks, each $1,200 ; 
4 clerks, each $1,000 ; 2 messengers, $650 and $100. 

By the act of Congress of August 31, 1842, the following bu- 
reaus were created and attached to the navy department, viz. : 
1. A Bureau of Navy- Yards and Docks ; 2. A Bureau of Construc- 
tion, Equipment, and Repair ; 3. A Bureau of Provisions and 
Clothing ; 4. A Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography ; 5. A Bu- 
reau of Medicine and Surgery. 

" The secretary of the navy shall assign and distribute among 
the said bureaus such of the duties of the navy department as he 
shall judge to be expedient and proper." — The titles given to 
these bureaus will, perhaps, sufficiently indicate the duties of each. 

Captain Joseph Smith, Chief of Bureau of Navy- Yards and 
Docks (salary, $3,500). Employed in office : 1 clerk (chief), 
at $1,400; 2 clerks, each $1,000; 1 clerk, $800; 1 messenger, 
$700. 

Captain Lewis Warrington, Chief of Bureau of Ordnance and 
Hydrography (salary, $3,500). Employed in office : 1 clerk, at 
$1,200 ; 4 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 messenger, $700. 

Captain Charles W. Skinner, Chief of Bureau of Construction, 
Equipment, and Repair (salary, $3,000). Employed in office : 1 
clerk (chief), at $1,400; 2 clerks, each $1,200; 5 clerks, each 
$1,000 ; 2 messengers, $600 and $400. 

Gideon Welles, Chief of Bureau of Provisions and Clothing 
(salary, $3,000). Employed in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,400 ; 
2 clerks, each $1,200 ; 1 clerk, $800 ; 1 messenger, $700. 

Surgeon Thomas Harris, Chief of Bureau of Medicine and Sur- 
gery (salary, $2,500). Employed in office : 1 clerk, or assistant, 
at $1,400; 1 clerk, $1,200; 1 clerk, $800; 1 messenger, :""' 



treasury department. 



The office of secretary of the treasury was created by act of 
September 2, 1789. He superintends all the fiscal concerns of 
the government, and recommends to Congress measures for im- 
proving the condition of the revenue. All accounts of the gov- 



56 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

eminent are finally settled at the treasury department — to aid 
in the adjustment of which there are attached to the treasury 
two comptrollers' offices, six auditors, a register, solicitor, and 
treasurer. 

Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, of Mississippi. 
Salary, $6,000. 

Employed in the treasury department proper : 1 clerk (chief), 
at $2,000 ; 1 clerk, $] ,800 ; 4 clerks, each $1,600 ; 4 clerks, each 
$1,400 ; 1 clerk, $1,500 ; 2 clerks, each $1,150 ; 4 clerks, each 
$1,000 ; 2 messengers, $700 and $650 ; 8 watchmen, each $365 ; 
superintendent of building, $500. 

First Comptroller's Office. — The first comptroller examines all 
accounts settled by the first and fifth auditor, and certifies the 
balances arising thereon, to the register ; countersigns all war- 
rants drawn by the secretary of the treasury, if warranted by law ; 
reports to the secretary the forms to be used in the different offices 
for collecting the revenue ; and superintends the preservation of 
the public accounts, subject to his revision, &c, &c. 

James W. M'Culloch, First Comptroller (salary, $3,500). Em- 
ployed in office : 1 clerk (chief ), $1,700 ; 8 clerks, each $1,400 ; 
5 clerks, each $1,150 ; 5 clerks, each $1,000 ; 2 messengers, each 



Second Comptroller's Office. — The second comptroller revises 
and certifies the accounts stated or settled in the offices of the 
second, third, and fourth auditors ; and he decides on all appeals 
from the decisions of those auditors ; and his decision is final, ex- 
cept by act of Congress. In this office a record is kept of the 
accounts settled, showing the balances due to or from the United 
States ; a record of all requisitions for money drawn by the sec- 
retaries of war and the navy ; and all the contracts involving the 
payment of money, entered into by these departments. The 
comptroller directs suits and stoppages on account of delinquen- 
cies, keeps an account with each specific appropriation, and makes 
annual and other statements of the disbursements, as required 
by law. 

[The comptrollers of the treasury are, in the sphere of their 
respective duties, the ultimate law-officers of the government. 
They are independent of each other, each having a particular 
class or division of public accounts to examine, and revise. The 
second comptroller's office was established on account of the con- 
stantly-increasing expenditures of the government. 

[C7 3 The duties of advancing money and accounting for it, are 
distinct. The secretaries of the departments exercise a discre- 
tion in advancing money from the appropriations made by Con- 
gress ; but it is the duty of the accounting officers of the treasury, 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 57 

independent of the secretaries, to require accounts and vouchers, 
showing the legal application of the money. Thus the hands of 
the executive are left unrestrained in advancing the necessary 
funds to agents for the purposes of the government ; but these 
agonts have to account to officers of the treasury, leaving the ex- 
ecutive no power to misapply the funds advanced.] 

Albion K. Parris, Second Comptroller (salary, $3,000). Em- 
ployed in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,700 ; 2 clerks, each $1,400 ; 
3 clerks, each $1,150 ; 2 clerks, each $1,000 ; 2 clerks, each $800 ; 
1 messenger, $700. 

First Auditor's Office. — The first auditor receives all accounts 
from the treasury department, in relation to the revenue and civil 
list ; and after examination certifies the balance, and transmits 
the amounts with the vouchers and certificates, to the first comp- 
troller, for his decision. 

William Collins, First Auditor (salary, $3,000). Employed in 
office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,700 ; 2 clerks, each $1,400 ; 6 clerks, 
each $1,150 ; 4 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 clerk, $800 ; 1 messenger, 
$700. 

Second Auditor's Office. — The second auditor receives and set- 
tles accounts relative to the pay and subsistence of the army, and 
its contingent disbursements ; all accounts relating to the medical 
department ; the recruiting service ; the ordnance department, 
and arsenals ; to the armament of new fortifications, and to arm- 
ing and equipping the militia ; to disbursements at the national 
armories, and all accounts relating to disbursements in the Indian 
department. 

John M. M'Calla, Second Auditor (salary, $3,000). Employed 
in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,700 ; 2 clerks, each $1,400 ; 6 
clerks, each $1,150 ; 6 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 clerk, $800 ; 1 mes- 
senger, $700. 

Third Auditor's Office. — This office audits all the accounts of 
the quartermaster's and subsistence departments ; accounts for 
fortifications ; for the military academy ; for roads, surveys, and 
other improvements ; for revolutionary, invalid, and half-pay 
pensions ; pensions to widows and orphans ; outstanding claims 
before and during the late war ; and all unsettled accounts of the 
war department to July 1, 1815. 

Peter Hagner., Third Auditor (salary, $3,000). Employed in 
office : 1 clerk (chief), at $1,700 ; 6 clerks, each $1,400 ; 12 clerks, 
each $1,150 ; 8 clerks, each $1,000 ; 3 clerks, each $800 ; 2 mes- 
sengers, $700 and $350. 

Fourth Auditor's Office. — The fourth auditor receives and 
audits all accounts of the navy department, for the ultimate de- 
cision of the second comptroller. 

A. O. Dayton, Fourth Auditor (salary, $3,000). Employed in 



58 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

office: 1 clerk (chief), .at $1,700 ; 2 clerks, each $1,400 ; 1 clerk, 
at $1,200 ; 4 clerks, each $1,150 ; 7 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 mes- 
senger, at $700. 

Fifth Audit okIs Office. — The fifth auditor receives all accounts 
accruing in, or relating to, the department of state ; the general 
postoffice ; and those arising out of Indian trade ; examines them, 
and certifies the balances, and transmits them to the first comp- 
troller, for his decision. 

Stephen Pleasonton, Fifth Auditor (salary $3,000). Employed 
in office: 1 clerk (chief) at $1,700; 2 clerks, each $1,400; 4 
clerks, $1,150; 2 clerks, each $1,000 ; 1 messenger, $700. 
I^p 3 For Sixth Auditor, see Postoffice Department. 

Treasurer's Office. — The treasurer receives and keeps the 
moneys of the United States, and disburses the same upon war- 
rants drawn by the secretary of the treasury, countersigned by 
the proper comptroller and auditor, and recorded by the register. 

William Selden, Treasurer of the United States ; salary, $3,000. 
Employed in office: 1 clerk (chief), at $1,700; 2 clerks, each 
$1,400 ; 5 clerks, each 1,200 ; 1 clerk, at $1,150 ; 2 clerks, each 
$1,000 ; 1 messenger, at $700. 

Register's Office.— -The register of the treasury keeps all ac- 
counts of the receipts and expenditures of the public money, and 
of all debts to, or from, the United States ; he keeps the district 
tonnage accounts; receives from the comptrollers and preserves 
the accounts which have been finally adjusted, with their vouch- 
ers and certificates ; he records all warrants for the receipt or 
payment of money at the treasury ; certifies the same thereon, 
and transmits to the secretary copies of the certificates of balances 
of accounts adjusted. He also prepares statistical accounts of 
commerce and navigation, to be laid before Congress. 

Daniel Graham, Register ; salary $3,000. Employed in office : 
1 clerk, (chief), at $1,700 ; 5 clerks, each $1,400 ; 1 clerk, at 
$1,200 ; 3 clerks, $1,150 ; 10 clerks, each $1,000 : 3 clerks, each 
$800 ; 2 messengers, at $700 and $350. 

Solicitor's Office. — The solicitor of the treasury is the govern- 
ment lawyer. He superintends all civil suits commenced in the 
name of the United States, in all the courts, until they are car- 
ried up to the supreme court, when they come under the superin- 
tendence of the attorney-general. He instructs the district attor- 
neys, marshals, and clerks, relative to suits at law, and receives 
from them reports of progress, &c. He establishes, with the ap- 
probation of the secretary, such rules and regulations for collectors, 
district attorneys, marshals, &c, as maybe necessary for those 
offices. He has also charge of lands or other property, assigned, 
set off, or conveyed to the United States for the payment of debts, 
with power to dispose of the same. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 59 

R. H. Gillett, Solicitor ; salary, $3,500. Employed in office : 
1 clerk (law), at $1,500 ; 6 clerks, each $1,150 ; 1 clerk, at $600 ; 
1 messenger, at $500. 

General Land Office, — The general land office was established 
by act of April 25, 1812. It has the charge and direction of 
the public surveys, and all patents for public land are made out 
and recorded in this office. Since the act of April 24, 1820, all 
sales of public lands are made only for cash. The minimum price 
is fixed at $1.25 per acre. The general land office is a branch of 
the treasury department. 

Richard M. Young, Commissioner ; salary, $3,000. Employed 
in office : 1 clerk (recorder), at $2,000 ; 3 principal clerks, each 
$1,800; 1 draughtsman, at $1,500; 1 assistant draughtsman, at 
$1,200; 1 clerk, at $1,500; 1 clerk, at $1,400; 14 clerks, each 
$1,300 ; 16 clerks, each $1,200 ; 5 clerks, each $1,100 ; 19 clerks, 
each $1,000 ; 2 messengers, each $700; 2 assistant messengers, 
at $638, and $350 ; 2 packers, each $450. 



POSTOFFICE DEPARTMENT. 

The postmaster-general superintends the affairs of the general 
postoffice, aided by three assistants. 

The business of this department is too extensive and multifa- 
rious to allow of our giving even an intelligible abstract of it. Its 
principal divisions or departments are those of appointments, con- 
tracts, and inspection. Some idea may be formed of the magni- 
tude of its business from the abstract of the postmaster-general's 
report and postoffice statistics (hereafter), and from the number 
of clerks employed. 

Postmaster-General, Cave Johnson, of Tennessee. 
Salary, $6,000. 

Selah R. Hobble, First Assistant Postmaster-General. Salary, 
$2,500. 

William J. Brown, Second Assistant Postmaster-General. Sal- 
ary, $2,500. 

John Marron, Third Assistant Postmaster-General. Salarv, 
$2,500. 

Employed in office : 1 clerk (chief), at $2,000 ; 4 clerks (prin- 
cipal), each $1,600 ; 13 clerks, each $1,400 ; 19 clerks, each 
$1,200; 9. clerks, each $1,000; 1 messenger, $750; 3 assistant 
messengers, each $350 ; 2 watchmen, each $350. 

Auditor of the Treasury for the Postoffice Department, or Sixth 
.Auditor. — To this office the law assigns the duty of settling all 
accounts of the postoffice department, whether of postmasters, 
contractors, or others. 

6 



60 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Peter G. Washington, Auditor (salary, $3,000). Employed in 
office: 1 clerk (chief), at $2,000; 4 clerks, each $1,600; 12 
clerks, each $1,400; 27 clerks, each $1,200; 24 clerks, each 
$1,000; 2 messengers, $750 and $350. 



ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S OFFICE. 

The office of attorney-general was created by act of Congress, 
Sept. 24, 1789. It is his duty to prosecute and conduct all suits 
in the supreme court in which the United States is concerned ; 
and to give his advice and opinion upon questions of law, when 
required by the president, or when requested by the heads of de- 
partments, touching every matter concerning their duties or 
offices. 

Attorney-General, Nathan Clifford, of Maine. 
Salary, $4,000. 
Employed in office: 1 clerk, at. $1,000; 1 messenger, at $500. 



The Cabinet, or Council of the President, is composed of the 
heads of departments, viz. : The secretaries of state, treasury, 
army, navy, the postmaster-general, and attorney-general. 



APPOINTMENTS. 

The heads of departments, and of judges of supreme court ; of 
foreign ministers, secretaries, and consuls ; t>f bureaus or branch 
departments ; of all commissioned officers of the army and navy ; 
of United States marshals, district attorneys, and judges ; of gov- 
ernors, secretaries, and judges of territories ; of collectors of cus- 
toms, and naval officers and surveyors of customs ; of surveyors- 
general ; of receivers and registers of public lands ; of officers of 
the mint; of postmasters whose annual income exceeds $1,000; 
of several of the higher clerks, &c, &c. ; are appointed by the 
president and senate. 

Civil clerks are nominated for appointment by the chiefs of 
bureaus (when employed by them), but the ultimate decision rests 
with the head of the department. 

Of the 500 civil clerks enumerated as attached to the public offices (taken 
from the last Biennial Register), 88 were natives of Virginia ; 74 of Maryland ; 
71 of Pennsylvania ; 65 of the District of Columbia ; 30 of New York ; 25 of 
Massachusetts; 15 of Maine; 15 of New Hampshire; 13 of Connecticut; 11 
of New Jersey; 8 of Tennessee; 7 of North Carolina; 5 of Kentucky; 5 of 
Ohio; 4 of Delaware ; 3 each of Rhode Island, Vermont, and Georgia; 2 
each of Indiana and South Carolina ; 1 each of Mississippi, Alabama, and 
Missouri ; and 40 of foreign countries. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 61 

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES. * 

Chief Justice, Roger B. Taney, of Baltimore, Maryland. 
Salary, $5,000. 

Associate Justices : John M'Lean, Cincinnati, Ohio ; James 
M. Wayne, Savannah, Georgia ; John Catron, Nashville, Ten- 
nessee ; John M'Kinstry r J^ouisville, Kentucky ; Peter V. Daniel, 
Richmond, Virginia; Samuel Nelson, Cooperstown, New York ; 
Levi Woodbury, Portsmouth, New Hampshire ; Robert C. Gricr, 
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Salary, $4,500 each. 

Wm. T. Carroll, Washington, Clerk. Fees. 



MISCELLANEOUS OFFICERS. 

Charles Douglas, Commissioner of Public Buildings (salary, 
$2,000). 

Charles Dunnington, Chief of Police at the Capitol (salary, 
$1,450). Four assistants, each $1,100. 

/. K. Walker, Secretary for signing Land Patents (saPy> $1,500). 

C. P. Sengstack, Warden of Penitentiary (salary, $1,500). 

John S. Meehan, Librarian to Congress (salary, $1,500). Two 
assistants, each $1,150. 

Coast Survey. — Alexander D. Bache, Superintendent (salary, 
$6,000). Three assistants, each $3,500 ; three assistants, each 
$2,000 ; three assistants, each $1,500 ; one assistant, $1,200 ; six 
assistants, each $1,000. 

United States Mint (under the Treasury Department). — Rob- 
ert M. Patterson, Director, Philadelphia (salary, $3,500). Treas- 
urer, coiner, refiner, assayer, engraver, each $2,000. 

Joseph M. Kennedy, Superintendent of Branch Mint at New 
Orleans (salary, $2,500). Assayer, coiner, refiner, each $2,000. 

James F. Cooper, Superintendent of Branch Mint at Dagh- 
lonega, Georgia (salary, $2,000). Two assistants, each $1,500. 

G. W. Caldwell, Superintendent of Branch Mint at Charlotte, 
North Carolina (salary, $2,000). Two assistants, each $1,500. 



OFFICERS OF THE INDEPENDENT TREASURY. 

Assistant Treasurers. — Henry Hubbard, at Boston (salary, 
$2,500). Wm. C. Bouck, at New York (salary, $4,000). Wm. 
Laval, at Charleston (salary, $2,500). George Penn, at St. 
Louis (salary, $2,500). 



62 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

# CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Congress is composed of a seriate and house of representatives. 
There are two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature 
for six years. In case of a vacancy, the governor of the state can 
appoint a senator to fill the place until the next meeting of the 
legislature. 

Representatives are chosen by the people biennially, or every 
two years, and each state is entitled to one representative for 
every 70,680 inhabitants.* By a law of the 27th Congress, each 
state is required to be divided into as many congressional districts 
as it is entitled to representatives. 

Congress assembles by law annually, at Washington, on the 
first Monday of December, although the term for which both sen- 
ators and representatives are chosen, commences from the 4th of 
March preceding, the day on which the president is always inau- 
gurated. The different Congresses are numbered to designate the 
number of elections for representatives (once in every two years) 
which have taken place. Thus, the present Congress is the 
30th since the formation of the government in 1789, when the 
first Congress assembled, and will end the 4th of March, 1849. 
The first session of a new Congress may be continued until its 
members vote to adjourn ; but the 2d or last session can not be 
held beyond the 4th of March, for on that day the term of every 
representative expires, when there must be a new election, and 
of course a new Congress. Thus there are two Congresses in ev- 
ery presidential term. 

The money power of the government is in the hands of Congress. This dis- 
position of the revenues and funds of the nation constitutes, perhaps, the most 
important distinction — except the right of suffrage — between representative 
and absolute governments. In the latter, the monarch disposes of the revenue 
without even rendering an account of the expenditure; in the United States, 
no money can be taken from the Treasury, except by an appropriation of 
Congress. No public officer could even draw his salary for services done the 
government, without an appropriation for the purpose. Thus the control of 
the revenues, as well as the laws for raising and collecting them, are but one 
step removed from the people themselves. 

Both senators and representatives are styled " members of Con- 
gress" ; but the proper mode of addressing individuals is : " Hon. 
John Fairfield, United States Senate;" "Hon. R. C. Winthrop, 
House of Representatives." 

* Ratio of representation at different periods : From 1790 to 1800, one repre- 
sentative for 33,000 inhabitants ; from 1800 to 1810, one representative for 33,000 
inhabitants; from 1810 to 1820, one representative for 35,000 inhabitants ; from 
1820 to 1830, one representative for 40,000 inhabitants; from 1830 to 1840, one 
representative for 47,700 inhabitants ; from 1840 to 1850, one representative 
for 70,680 inhabitants. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES, 



63 



MEMBERS OF THE THIRTIETH CONGRESS, 

Convened in Washington the first Monday in December, 1847. 

President of the Senate : Hon. GEORGE M. DALLAS, ex officio. 
Speaker of the House : Hon. ROBERT C. WINTHROP. 



MAINE. 

Senators, 

W. B. S. Moor *1851 

James W. Bradbury 1853 

Representatives. 
fl. David Hammons ID 

2. Asa W. H. Clapp D 

3. Hiram Belcher W 

4. Franklin Clark D 

5. Ephraim K. Smart D 

6. James S. Wiley D 

7. Hezekiah Williams D 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Senators. 

Charles G. Atherton 1849 

John P. Hale 1853 

Representatives. 

1. A:nos Tuck W 

2. Charles H. Peaslee D 

3. James Wilson W 

4. James H. Johnson D 

VERMONT. 

Senators. 

William Upham. . , 1849 

Samuel S. Phelps 1851 

Representatives, 

1. William Henrv W 

2. Jacob Collamer W 

3. George P. Marsh W 

4. Lucius B. Peck D 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Senators. 

Daniel Webster 1851 

John Davis 1853 



Representatives. 

1. Robert C. Winthrop W 

2. Daniel P. King W 

3. Amos Abbott W 

4. John G. Palfrey W 

5. Charles Hudson W 

6. George Ashmun W 

7. Julius Rockwell W 

8. John Q. Adams W 

9. Artemas Hale * . . W 

10. Joseph Grinnell W 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Senators. 

Albert C. Greene 1851 

John H. Clarke 1853 

Representatives. 

1. R. B. Cranston W* 

2. Benjamin B. Thurston D 

CONNECTICUT. 

Senators. 

John M. Niles 1849 

R. S. Baldwin 1851 

Representatives. 

1. James Dixon W 

2. Samuel D. Hubbard W 

3. John A. Rockwell W 

4. Truman Smith W 

NEW YORK. 

Senators. 

John A. Dix 1849 

Daniel S. Dickinson 1851 

Representatives. 

1. Frederick W. Lord D 

2. H. C. Murphy D 



* Year in which the term expires. 
t Each state is divided into districts for the choice of representatives, 
numbers refer to the districts. 
t D. Democrat ; W. Whig. 

0* 



The 



64 



GOVERNMENT OF THEJJNITED STATES. 



3. Henry Nicoll . , ..D 

4. William B. Maclay D 

5. F. A. Tallmadge W 

6. D. S. Jackson D 

7. William Nelson W 

8. Cornelius Warren W 

9. Daniel B.St. John W 

10. Eliakim Sherrill W 

11. Peter H. Silvester W 

1 2. Gideon Reynolds W 

13. J. J. Slin^erland W 

14. Orlando Kellogg . . . W 

15. Sidney Lawrence D 

16. Hugh Whiter W 

17. George Petrie D 

18. JosephMullin W 

19. William Collins D 

20. Timothy Jenkins D 

21. G. A. Starkweather D 

22. Ausburn Birdsall D 

23. William Duer W 

24. Daniel Gott W 

25. Harmon S. Conger W 

26. William T. Lawrence W 

27. JohnM. Holley W 

28. Elias B. Holmes W 

*29. Robert L. Rose W 

30. Daniel Rumseyj Jr W 

31. Dudley Marvin W 

32. Nathan K. Hall W 

33. Harvey Putnam W 

34. Washington Hunt W 

NEW JERSEY. 

Senators. 

William L. Dayton 1851 

Jacob W. Miller 1853 

Representatives. 

1. James G. Hampton.. » W 

2. W. A. Newall......*....W 

3. Joseph E. Edsall D 

4. John Van Dyke W 

5. Dudley S. Gregory W 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Senators. 

Simon Cameron 1849 

Daniel Sturgeon 1851 

Representatives. 
1. Lewis C. Levin t . N 



2. Joseph R. Ingersoll W 

3. Charles Brown D 

4. Charles J. Ingersoll... ... ..D 

5. John Freedley W 

6. J. W. Hornbeck W 

7. A. R. M'llvaine W 

8. John Strohm W 

9. William Strong D 

1 0. Richard Brodhead D 

11. Chester Butler W 

12. David Wilmot D 

13. James Pollock W 

14. George N. Eckert W 

15. Henry Nes W 

16. Jasper E. Brady W 

17. John Blanchard , . . . . W 

18. Andrew Stewart W 

19. Job Mann D 

20. John Dickey W 

21. Moses Hampton W 

22. J.W. Farrelly W 

23. James Thompson D 

24. Alexander Irvin W 

DELAWARE. 

Senators. 

John M. Clayton 1851 

Presley Spruance 1853 

Representative. 
John W. Houston..., W 

MARYLAND. 

Senators. 

James A. Pearce 1849 

Reverdy Johnson 185 1 

Representatives. 

1. John G. Chapman W 

2. James Dixon Roman W 

3. T. W. Ligon D 

4. R. M. M'Lane D 

5. Alexander Evans W 

6. John W. Crisiield W 

VIRGINIA. 

Senators. 

James M. Mason 1851 

Robert M. T. Hunter 1853 

Representatives. 
1. Archibald Atkinson. ....... D 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



65 



2. Richard K. Meade D 

3. Thomas S. Flournoy W 

4. Thomas S. Bocock D 

5. William L. Goggin W 

6. John M. Bolts J W 

7. Thomas H. Bayly D 

8. R. T. L. Beale D 

9. John S. Pendleton W 

10. Henry Bedinger D 

1 1 . James M'Dowell D 

12. William B. Preston W 

13. Andrew S. Fulton W 

14. Robert A. Thompson D 

15. William G. Brown D 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Senators. 

George E. Badger 1849 

Willie P. Mangum 1853 

Representatives. 

1. T. L. Clingman W 

2. N. Boyden W 

3. Daniel M. Barringer W 

4. Augustine H. Shepperd. .. .W 

5. Abraham W. Venable D 

6. James K. M'Kay D 

7. John R. J. Daniel D 

8. Richard S. Donnell W 

9. David Outlaw W 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Senators, 

A. P. Butler 1849 

John C. Calhoun 1853 

Representatives. 

1. James A. Black D 

2. Richard F. Simpson D 

3. Joseph A. Woodward D 

4. A. D. Sims D 

5. Armistead Burt . . . D 

6. Isaac E. Holmes D 

7. R. Barnwell Rhett D 

GEORGIA. 

Senators. 

Walter T. Colquitt 1849 

J. M'Pherson Berrien 1853 

Representatives. 
1. Thomas B. King. ..,...., . W 



2. Alfred Iverson D 

3. John W. Jones W 

4. Hugh A. Haralson D 

5. John H. Lumpkin D 

6. Howell Cobb D 

7. Alexander H. Stephens. . . .W 

8. Robert Toombs W 

ALABAMA. 

Senators. 

Arthur P. Bagby 1849 

1853 
Representatives. 

1. JohnGayle W 

2. Henry W. Hilliard W 

3. S.W.Harris D 

4. S. W. Inge D 

5. George S. Houston D 

6. W. R. W. Cobb r.D 

7. F. W. Bowdon D 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Senators. 

Jefferson Davis 185 1 

Henry S. Foote 1853 

Representatives. 

1 . J. Thompson D 

2. W. S. Featherston D 

3. Patrick W. Tompkins W 

4. A. G. Brown D 

LOUISIANA. 

Senators. 

Henry Johnson 1849 

S. U. Downs 1853 

Representatives. 

1. E. Le Sere D 

2. B. G. Thibodeaux W 

3. J. H. Harmonson. D 

4. Isaac E. Morse ........... D 

ARKANSAS. 

Senators. 

Ambrose H. Sevier 1849 

Chester Ashley 1853 

Representative. 
Robert W. Johnson D 



06 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES, 



TEXAS. 

Senators. 

Thomas J. Rusk 1851 

Samuel Houston 1853 

Representatives. 

1 . Timothy Pillsbury D 

2. David S. Kaufman D 

FLORIDA. 

Senators. 

J. D. Westcott, Jr 1849 

David L. Yulee 1851 

Representative. 
Edward C. Cabell W 

TENNESSEE. 

Senators. 

Hopkins L. Turney 1851 

John Bell 1853 

Representatives. 

1 . Andrew Johnson D 

2. W.M. Cocke W 

3. John H. Crozier W 

4. H. L. W. Hill D 

5. George W. Jones D 

6. J. H. Thomas D 

7. Meredith P. Gentry W 

8. Washington Barrow W 

9. L. B.Chase D 

10. Frederick P. Stanton D 

11. William T. Haskell W 

KENTUCKY. 

Senators. 

John J. Crittenden 1849 

Joseph R. Underwood 1853 

Representatives. 

1. Linn Boyd #....D 

2. Samuel O. Peyton D 

3. B. L. Clark D 

4. Aylett Buckner • W 

5. J. B. Thompson W 

6. Green Adams ,W 

7. Garnett Duncan W 

8. Charles S. Morehead W 

9. Richard French D 

10. John P. Gaines W 



OHIO. 

Senators. 

William Allen 1849 

Thomas Corwin 1851 

Representatives. 

1. James J. Faran D 

2. David Fisher W 

3. Robert C. Schenck W 

4. Richard S. Canby W 

5. William Sawyer D 

6. Rodolphus Dickinson D 

7. Jonathan D. Morris D 

8. John L. Taylor W 

9. Thomas 0. Edwards W 

10. Daniel Duncan % . . . W 

11. JohnK. Miller D 

12. Samuel F. Vinton W 

13. Tho's Richey D 

14. Nathan Evans W 

15. William Kennon Jr D 

16. John D. Cummins. D 

17. George Fries D 

18. Samuel Lahm , . . ,D 

19. John Crowell W 

20. Joshua R. Giddings W 

21. Joseph M. Root W 

MICHIGAN. 

Senators. 

Lewis Cass 1851 

Alpheus Felch 1853 

Representatives. 

1. Robert McClelland D 

2. Chas. E. Stuart D 

3. Kinsley L. Bingham D 

INDIANA. * 

Senators. 

E. A. Hannegan 1849 

Jesse D. Bright 1851 

Representatives. 

1. Elisha Embree W 

2. Thomas J. Henley D 

3. J. L. Robinson D 

4. Caleb B.Smith W 

5. William W.Wick.; D 

6. George G. Dunn ...... W 

7. R. W.Thompson W 

8. John Pettit. • D 



GQ?ttt$XZ%T ©F THE WITISD STATES; 



67 



9. Charles W. Cathcart B 

10. William Rockhill D 

ILLINOIS. 

Senators. 

Sidney Breese . 1849 

Stephen A. Douglass 1853 

Representatives. 

Robert Smith D 

James A. M f Clernand D 

Orlando B. Ficklin D 

John Wentworth D 

William A. Richardson . . . . D 

Thomas J. Turner D 

Abraham Lincoln W 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 

6. 

7. 



MISSOURI. 

Senators. 



David R. Atchison 1849 

Thomas H, Benton 1851 



Representatives. 

1. James B. Bowlin D 

2. John Jamieson D 

3. James S. Green . . .D 

4. Willard P. Hall D 

5. John S. Phelps D 

IOWA. 

Senators. 

1851 
1853 

Representatives. 

1. William Thompson D 

2. Shepherd Leffler D 

WISCONSIN TERRITORY. 

Delegate. 
JohnH. Tweedv W 



Officers of the Senate {for thirtieth Congress). — Aslury Dick- 
ins, Secretary of the Senate (salary, $3,000). 1 principal clerk, 
at $1,800 ; 5 clerks, each $1,500 ; sergeant-at-arms, and door- 
keeper, each $1,500 ; assistant doorkeeper, $1,450 ; chaplain, 
$500 ; 3 messengers, each $3 per day ; 1 messenger, $2 per day. 

Officers of the House of Representatives (for thirtieth Con- 
gress). — Thomas J. Campbell, Clerk of the House of Represen- 
tatives (salary, $3,000). 1 chief clerk, at $1,800 ; 8 clerks, each 
$1,500 ; serjeant-at-arms, librarian, doorkeeper, and postmaster, 
each $1,500 ; 16 messengers and attendants, each $2.50 per day. 

Compensation. — The compensation of members of Congress is 
$8 per day, each (speaker $16), during the session, and $8 for 
every twenty miles of actual travel in going and returning. 



Of representatives in the twenty-ninth Congress, six were natives of Maine ; 
5 of New Hampshire ; 14 of Vermont ; 11 of Massachusetts ; 1 of Rhode Is- 
land ; 13 of Connecticut ; 30 of New York ; 4 of New Jersey ; 31 of Penn- 
sylvania ; 2 of Delaware ; 6 of Maryland ; 26 of Virginia ; 15 of North Car- 
olina ; 11 of South Carolina ; 6 of Georgia ; 1 of Mississippi ; 2 of Louisiana ; 
7 of Tennessee ; 11 of Kentucky ; 6 of Ohio ; 2 of Indiana ; 1 of Illinois : 1 
of England ; 1 of Scotland ; 1 of Ireland ; 2 of other foreign countries ; 1 of 
District of Columbia ; 2 not stated. 



68 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

American ministers, etc,, to foreign nations (State Department) . 

Salary 

George Bancroft, Minister Plenipotentiary to England $9,000 

John R. Brodhead, Secretary of Legation 2,000 

Richard Rush, Minister Plenipotentiary to France. 9,000 

J. L. Martin, Secretary of Legation 2,000 

Ralph J. Ingersoll, Minister Plenipotentiary to Russia 9,000 

Colin M. Ingersoll, Acting Secretary of Legation 2,000 

Andrew J. Donelson, Minister Plenipotentiary to Prussia 9,000 

Theodore S. Fay, Secretary of Legation 2,000 

R. M. Saunders, Minister Plenipotentiary to Spain 9,000 

T. C. Reynolds, Secretary of Legation 2,000 

David Tod, Minister Plenipotentiary to Brazil 9,000 

T. J. Morgan, Secretary of Legation 2,000 

D. S. Carr, Minister Resident to Turkey 6,000 

J. P. Brown, Drogoman (Interpreter) 2,500 

John W. Davis, Commissioner to China, Canton 5,000 

Peter Parker, Secretary and Interpreter 2,500 

George W. Hopkins, Charge d'Affaires to Portugal 4,500 

T. J. Clemson, Charge d'Affaires to Belgium . 4,500 

R. P. Henniker, Charge d'Affaires to Denmark 4,500 

Auguste Davezac, Charge d'Affaires to Netherlands 4,500 

Wra, H. Stiles, Charge d'Affaires to Austria 4,500 

H. W. Ellsworth, Charge d'Affaires to Sweden 4,500 

Nathaniel Niles, Charge d'AfTaires to Sardinia 4,500 

John Rowen, Charge d'Affaires to Naples 4.500 

Benjamin A. Bidlack, Charge d'Affaires to New Grenada 4J500 

B. G. Shields, Charge d'Affaires to Venezuela 4,500 

W. A. Harris, Charge d'Affaires to Buenos Ayres 4,500 

Seth Barton, Charge d'Affaires to Chili 4,500 

John R. Clay, Charge d'Affaires to Peru 4,500 



foreign ministers, etc., resident in the united states. 

England.— John F. Crampton, Esq.-,. Acting Charge d'AfTaires. 
France.— -M. Alphonse Joseph Yves Pageot, Minister Plenipotentiary. 
Russia.— Mr. Alexander de Bodisco, Minister Plenipotentiary. 
Mr. Edward de Stoeckl, First Secretary of Legation. 
Netherlands.— Chevalier F. M. W. Testa, Charge d'Affaires. 
Spain. — Don A. Calderon de la Barca, Minister Plenipotentiary. 
Don Fidencio Bourman, Secretary of Legation. 
Portugal.— The Commander J. C. De Fjganiere e Moras, Minister 
Resident. 
Prussia.— Baron Von Gerolt, Minister Resident. 
Austria.— -The Chevalier Hiilsemann, Charge d'Affaires. 
Belgium.— The Chevalier Beaulieu, Minister Resident. 
Denmark.— Mr. Steen de Bille, Charge d'Affaires. 
Sweden,— Mr. A. de Lovenskiold, Charge d'Affaires. 
The Two Sicilies (Naples),— Chev. Martuscelli, Charge d'Affaires. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



69 



.Argentine Confederation. — Brigadier General Don Carlos Maria de 
Alvear, Minister Plenipotentiary. 

Don Emilio de Alvear, Secretary of Legation. 

Brazil. — Mr. Felippe Pereira Leal, Charge d' Affaires. 

Chili. — Don Manuel Carvallo, Minister Plenipotentiary. 

Don Francisco S. Astuburuga, Secretary of Legation. 

Peru. — Senor Don Joaquin Jose de Osma, Minister Plenipotentiary. 



GENERAL VIEW AND CLASSIFICATION OF OTHER CIVIL OFFICES. 

Customs or Collection of Duties. — To the treasury department belongs 
the duty of collecting the customs or duties on foreign goods imported. 
There are in the United States 92 collection districts, of which 12 are 
in Maine ; 1 in New Hampshire ; 1 in Vermont (on the northern fron- 
tier) ; 11 in Massachusetts; 3 in Rhode Islands ; 5 in Connecticut; 
10 in New York (8 on the lakes, and 2 on the Atlantic) ; 6 in New 
Jersey; 2 in Pennsylvania (1 on Lake Erie); 1 in Delaware; 4 in 
Maryland ; 2 in District of Columbia ; 6 in Virginia ; 8 in North Caroli- 
na ; 2 in South Carolina ; 2 in Georgia ; 5 in Florida ; 1 in Alabama ; 
3 in Mississippi; 2 in Louisiana; 3 in Ohio; 2 in Michigan. 

The compensation to collectors arises from fees and commissions, and 
is limited to $G,400 in the ports of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, Charleston, New Orleans, and Savannah ; and in all other 
ports to $3,400. In the small districts it amounts to only $200, $300, 
or $500 per annum. The compensation of all subordinate officers is 
fixed at a yearly or daily rate of pay. 

The following table gives the names of the collectors, the number of 
the principal subordinate officers, and the whole number of persons, 
employed at the principal ports : — 







si- 




£g 


O; S rd 


City or District. 


Collector. 


°2| 

£20 


A* 

So 


So ox 


Tot'l p 
sorts e 
ploye 


Portland 


John Anderson - - 


1 


8 


_ 


19 


Boston - - 


Marcus Morton - - 


20 


56 


21 


145 


Providence - 


Benjamin Cowell - 


2 


12 


_ 


25 


New York - 


Corns. W. Lawrence 


160 


185 


75 


500 


Philadelphia 


James Page - - - 


28 


42 


22 


142 


Baltimore - 


Wm. H. Marriott - 


6 


24 


23 


65 


Charleston - 


Wm. J. Grayson - - 


5 


22 


4 


37 


Savannah - 


Wm. B. Bullock - - 


4 


10 


» 


18 


New Orleans 


Denis Prieur - - - 


20 


56 


17 


117 


Detroit - - 


Chas. G. Hammond - 


5 


26 


- - 


* 32 



From the foregoing table, a general opinion may be formed of the 
business done in the different seaports. It will be observed that the 
New York customhouse is the focus of a vast government business, ex- 
ceeded only by the government offices in Washington in the number 
of persons employed, as a large portion of the public revenue is col- 



70 



tlOVI&KSiSSrc OF TH1 TOJTEE STAfSS. 



lected at this port. The pay of appraisers, gaugers, weighers, meas- 
urers, and principal clerks in the customhouses, is generally $1,500 
each; of other clerks, $1,000; of inspectors, $1,095, or $3 per day; 
of night inspectors or watchmen, $500 to $600. 

Revenue Marine. — The United States revenue marine (under the di- 
rection of the treasury department) consists of several fast-sailing and 
steam vessels, called " revenue-cutters," employed in the different har- 
bors and along the coast, under the direction of the collectors, to pre- 
vent smuggling. It employs 20 captains, at $1,200 each per annum; 
22 1st lieutenants, each $960; 21 2d lieutenants, each $860 ; 20 3d 
lieutenants, each $790; 6 engineers, each $960; and 6 assistant engi- 
neers, each $790. 

Lighthouses. — The collectors of the revenue are generally the super- 
intendents of the lighthouses in their districts. There are 257 light- 
houses in the United States, the keepers of which receive a compensa- 
tion varying from $300 to $600 each. There are also 30 floating lights 
placed in situations of dangerous navigation, whose keepers receive 
$500, $600, and in the most exposed situations $700. 



LAND-OFFICES. 

In the new states and territories are 63 land-offices, located in the 
same number of land districts, for the convenience of purchasers. At 
the head of each office there is a register of public lands, and a re- 
ceiver of money for lands sold. These officers receive each $500 sal- 
ary, and one per cent, commission on moneys entered and received at 
their several offices ; but the commissions can not exceed $2,500 per 
annum. The following is a list of land-offices to which letters may be 
directed without naming the officers occupying the station : — 



Place and State. 


Place and State. 


Place and State. 


Place and State. 


Chillicothe, Ohio. 


Chicago, Illinois. 


Jackson,Mississippi. 


Helena, Arkansas. 


Up'r Sandusky, do. 
Vincennes, Indiana. 


St. Louis, Missouri. 


Washington, do. 


Batesville, do. 


Palmyra, 


do. 


Augusta, do. 


Little Rock, do. 


Jeflfersonville, do. 


Fayette, 


do. 


Grenada, do. 


Washington, do. 


Indianapolis, do. 


Jackson, ' 


do. 


Columbus, do. 


Fayetteville, do. 


Crawfordsville, do. 


Clinton, 


do. 


Pontotoc, do. 


Johnson C. H., do. 


Fort Wayne, do. 


Springfield, 


do. 


Ouachita,Louisiana. 


Champagnole, do. 


Winamac, do. 


Plattsburg, 


do. 


New Orleans, do. 


Milwaukie, Wisc'n. 


Kaskaskia, Illinois. 


Cahaba, Alabama. 


Opelousas, do. 


Mineral Point, do. 


Shawneetown, do. 


St. Stephens, 


do. 


Greensburg, do. 


Green Bay, do. 


Edwardsville, do. 


Hunts ville, 


do. 


Natchitoches, do. 


Chippewa, do. 


Vandalia, do. 


Tuscaloosa, 


do. 


Detroit, Michigan. 


Dubuque, Iowa. 


Palestine, do. 


Sparta, 


do. 


Kalamazoo, do. 


Fairfield, do. 


Springfield, do. 


Demopolis, 


do. 


Genesee, do. 


Tallahassee,Florida. 


Danville, do. 


Montgomery, 


do. 


Ionia, do. 


St. Augustine, do. 


Quiney, do. 


Lebanon, 


do. 


Lake Superior, do. 


Newnansville, do. 


Dixon, do. 











Eight surveyors-general of public lands receive each $2,000 : — 
Surveyor-general of Ohio, India, and Michigan, office at Detroit. 
Surveyor-general of Wisconsin and Iowa, office at Dubuque, Iowa. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



71 



Surveyor-general of Illinois and Missouri, office at St. Louis, Missouri. 
Surveyor-general of Arkansas, office at Little Rock, Arkansas. 
Surveyor-general of Mississippi, office at Jackson, Mississippi. 
Surveyor-general of Louisiana, office at Donaldsonville, Louisiana. 
Surveyor-general of Alabama, office at Florence, Alabama. 
Surveyor-general of Florida, office at St. Augustine, Florida, 



DISTRICT COURTS. 

In the different states are 38 United States district courts (exclusive 
of the District of Columbia), of which 1 judge receives $3,500 annu- 
allv ; 1 judge, $3,000 ; 6 judges, each $2,500 ; 2 judges, each $2,300 ; 
6 judges, each $2,000; 6 judges, each $1,800; 1 judge, $1,600; 13 
judges, each $1,500; 1 judge, $1,200; 1 judge, $1,000. Attorneys 
and marshals attached to these district courts receive each $200 and 
fees. 



PRINCIPAL POSTOFFICES. 

There are in the United States 101 postoffices, whose postmasters re- 
ceive upward of $1,000 each. Many of these, however, are in small 
towns, where the postmasters receive a compensation above the whole 
receipts of their offices, for the extra labor and responsibility of " dis- 
tributing" the mails on different routes. 

The following table exhibits the principal postoffices, with the amount 
of receipts and compensation in each : — 



Postoffice. 


Postmaster. 


Compen- 


Net Pro- 


No. of 






sation. 

$2,000 


ceeds. 


Clerks. 


New York - - 


Robert H. Morris - - 


8260,091 


41 


Philadelphia - - 


George F. Lehman - - 


2,000 


140,198 


24 


New Orleans - 


Alexander G. Penn - - 


2,000 


93,950 


10 


Boston- - - - 


Nathaniel Greene - • - 


2,000 


86,214 


23 


Baltimore - - - 


James M. Buchanan - - 


1,996 


61,192 


22 


Charleston - - 


Alfred Huger ... - 


2,000 


46,594 


8 


Cincinnati - - 


George Crawford • - - 


2.000 


42,727 


9 


Richmond - - 


Thomas B. Bigger - - 


1,684 


30,615 


6 


St. Louis - - - 


John M. Wimer - - - 


2,000 


27,693 


9 


Pittsburg - - • 


Chambers M'Kibbin - - 


2,000 


23,962 


6 


Mobile - - - - 


John W. Townsend - - 


2,000 


23,808 


4 


Albany - - - 


James D. Wasson - - 


2,000 


21,445 


15 


Savannah - - - 


George Schley - - - 


1,825 


19,409 


3 


Harrisburg - - 


James Peacock - - - 


2,000 


19,158 


4 


Louisville - - - 


Thomas J. Read - - - 


2,000 


18,569 


10 


Providence - - 


Welcome B. Sayles - - 


1,572 


14,274 


5 


Washington - - 


Charles K. Gardner - - 


2,000 


9,811 


16 



The above columns of figures were all derived from the last Biennial Re- 
gister. 



t2 GOVERNMENT Of THE UNITED STATES. 

The compensation to postmasters is derived from a commission out of their 
receipts, but it can not exceed $2,000. They are also allowed the amount 
arising from the sale of the letter-boxes in their respective offices, as a per- 
quisite. In small offices, where the receipts are trifling, the postmasters are 
allowed more than the former established commissions, as since the abolition 
of the franking privilege it would be difficult otherwise to obtain the services 
of responsible persons in such offices. 

In offices where the commissions exceed $1,000, postmasters are appointed 
by the president and senate ; in other offices, by the postmaster-general. 



ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

[Compiled chiefly from the last Army Register, August 31, 1847.] 

General Officers,— Major-Generals. 

Date of Commission. Date of 1st Appointment. Born in 

*Winfield Scott June 25, 1841.... May 3, 1808 Virginia 

Zachary Taylor June 29, 1846 May 3, Virginia 

Gideon J. Pillow April 13, 1847 . . . . Apr. 13, 1847. • . .Tenn. 

John A. Quitman April 14, 1847. . . .Apr. 14, 1847 . . . .N. York 

Brigadier-Generals. 
Date of Commission. Date of 1st Appointment. Bora in 

fEdmund P. Gaines March 9, 1814. . . . Jan. 10, 1799. . . .Virginia. 

John E. Wool June 25, 1841 ... .Apr. 14, 1812.... N. York 

David E. Twiggs June 30, 1846 Mar. 12,1812 Georgia. 

Stephen W. Kearny June 30, 1846. . . .Mar. 12, 1812. . . .N. J. 

Franklin Pierce March 3, 1847. .. .Feb. 18, 1847. . . .N. H. 

George Cadwalader March 3, 1847 .... Mar. 3, 1847. . . . 



General and Staff Officers — Provided for the organization of the vol- 
unteer forces in the service of the United States in the war with 
Mexico :— « 

Major-Generals. 

Date of Commission. Bora in 

William O. Butler June 29, 1846 ... . Kentucky. 

Robert Patterson July 7, 1846. . . .Ireland. 

Brigadier-Generals. 

Date of Commission. Born in 

Thomas Marshall July 1, 1846 .... Kentucky. 

Joseph Lane July 1, 1846.... N. C. 

James Shields July 1, 1846. . . . Ireland. 

Caleb Cushing April 14, 1847 Mass. 

Sterling Price July 20, 1847. ... . 

5 quartermasters (majors) ; 20 assistant quartermasters (captains) ; 
4 commissaries (majors) ; 19 assistant commissaries (captains) ; 20 
surgeons ; 19 assistant surgeons j 12 additional paymasters. 

* Commanding-in-chief. t Major-General by brevet. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES, 



73 



Organization of the Regular Army. 



General Staff. 
4 Major-Generals. 

7 Brigadier-Generals. 
1 Adjutant-General. 

1 Asst. Adjutant-General (lieut. 

colonel). 
4 Asst. Adjt. Generals (majors). 

8 Asst. Adjt. Generals (capt'ns). 

2 Inspectors-General. 

1 Quartermaster-General. 

2 Asst. Quartermasters-Gener'l. 
2 Dept. Quarlermasters-Genr'l. 
8 Quartermasters. 

38 Assistant Quartermasters. 



1 



Commissary-General of Sub- 
sistence. 

1 Asst. Com'y-Gen ? l of Subs'ce. 

2 Commissaries (majors). 
4 Commissaries (captains). 

Medical Department. 
1 Surgeon-General. 
32 Surgeons. 
82 Assistant Surgeons. 
Pay Department. 

1 Paymaster-General. 

2 Deputy Paymaster-General. 
28 Paymasters. 

17 Military Storekeepers. 



Staff Departments and Line of the Army. 



& 


CO 

J- 

o 
o 
a 

"Si 


a 

(0 

S 


Cm 

O 


3 
a 

S3 


o 


Cm 

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03 

•£P 






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o 

a 




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s 

a> 


O 


CD 


a 

a 


O 
> 






5b 
a 


o 




"3. ^ 


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0) 

a . 


*Sb 


o 








EH 
Cm 

5 


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a 
est 


o s 

cd o 


§ a 

a ° 

a ^3 


"Kbfr 




a 

a 


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bo 

03 




a. 


a, 
n 


a 
u 




ffS 






WD 

03 


bO 




O 


Q 


o 


H 


pej 


ft 


QQ 


tf 


< 




1 


1 


1 


3 


1 


4 


16 


1 


28 


Colonels. 


2 


1 


1 


3 


1 


4 


16 


1 


29 


Lieut. Colonels. 


4 


4 


4 


6 


2 


8 


32 


2 


62 


Majors. 








3 


1 


4 


16 


1 


25 


Adjutants." 


12 


10 


12 


30 


10 


48 


160 


10 


292 


Captains. 


12 


10 


12 


30 


10 


96 


160 


10 


340 


1st Lieutenants. 


12 


10 


6 


40 


10 


48 


240 


20 


386 


2d Lieutenants. 


10 


- 


46 


120 


40 


192 


640 


40 


1,088 


Sergeants. 


10 


- 


- 


120 


40 


192 


640 


40 


1,042 


Corporals. 








3 


1 


8 


32 


2 


46 


Principal musi- 
cians. 


2 


- 


. 


. 


- 


96 


320 


20 


438 


Musicians. 


78 


- 


- 


3,000 


1,000 


4,800 


16,000 


1,000 


25,878 


Privates. 


43 


36 


36 


118 


35 


208 


648 


47 


1,336 


Total commis'd. 


100 


- 


598 


3,408 


1,146 


5,492 


17,663 


1,104 


29,512 


Total non-com- 
missioned and 


143 


36 


634 














privates. 


3,526 


1,181 


5,700 


18,312 


1,151 


30,865 


Aggregate. 



74 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

In addition to the foregoing table, there are 25 regimental quarter- 
masters, 1 to each regiment ; 25 sergeant-majors, 1 to each regi- 
ment ; 25 quartermaster-sergeants, 1 to each regiment ; 8 chief 
buglers, 2 to each regiment of dragoons and mounted riflemen ; 
bU buglers 2 to each company of dragoons and mounted riflemen ; 
» principal teamsters, 1 to each regiment of dragoons, artillery, 
and mounted riflemen ; 50 farriers and blacksmiths, for dragoons 
and mounted riflemen ; 96 artificers, for regiments of artillery ; 
176 teamsters, for dragoons, artillery, and mounted riflemen ; 552 
enlisted men of ordnance. 

These numbers should be added to the several regiments and 
arms to which they are attached, to make the aggregates com- 



No ,l E ^ The a ^ re ^ ate of the last Army Register (Jan., 1847), 
was 17,812 ; of the Register of 1846, 8,619. 

ITT- The two foregoing tables afford by analysis a complete view of 
the organization of the army, in detail as well as aggregate. If there 
i ll c ?P tams . t0 a regiment, there are of course 10 companies ; if 
1,000 privates in a regiment, there are 100 in a company : 20 lieuten- 
ants in a regiment give 2 to a company— musicians the same, &c. 

The aggregates give the number of men in the different regiments 
and the whole army when fall or complete— not that there are so many 
always in service. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



75 



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76 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Pay and Allowances of the 


Army 








Rank. 



£ 


p. 
a 


4-s VI 

2 5 
Eg 




13 

CO 




g. 

S s 


1 
> 


§• 

S s 

s 


04 








6 


O cS 


en 
O 

6 


is 




IS 






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15 


&> 


is 

3 


m 


4 


SS 


H 


Major- General .... 


$200.00 


$90 


$24. 


$62.00 


$376.00 


Brigadier-General - - - 


104.00 


12 


72 


3 


24 


3 


46.50 


246.50 


Adjutant-General - - - 


90.00 


6 


36 


3. 


24 


2 


33.00 


183.00 


Inspector-General - - - 


same 


as 


Adju- 


tant 


Gene- 


ral. 






Quartermaster-General - 


104.00 


12 


72 


3 


24 


3 


46.50 


246.50 


Asst. Qr. Master-General ) 
Commissary-General - \ 


same 


as 


Adju- 


tant 


Gene- 


ral. 






Paymaster-General- - - 


$2,500 


per 


year. 












Paymaster 


60.00 


4 


24 


1 


8 


2 


33.00 


125.00 


Surgeon-General - - - 


$2,500 


per 


year. 












Surg'ns of 10 years' service 


60.00 


8 


48 


1 


8 


2 


33.00 


149.00 


Assistant Surgeons- - - 


33.33 


4 


24 


1 


8 


1 


16.50 


81.83 


Colonel of Staff Corps, or ? 
Dragoons - - - - 3 


same 


as 


Adju- 


tant 


Gene- 


lal. 






Lt. Col. of Staff Corps, &c. 


75.00 


5 


30 


3 


24 


2 


33.00 


162.00 


Major of Staff Corps, &c. 


60.00 


4 


24 


3 


24 


2 


33.00 


141.00 


Captain of Staff Corps, &c. 


50.00 


4 


24 


2 


16 


1 


16.50 


106.50 


1st Lt. of Staff Corps, &c. 


33.33 


4 


24 


2 


16 


1 


16.50 


89.83 


2d Lt. of Staff Corps, &c. 


33.33 


4 


24 


2 


16 


1 


16.50 


89.83 


Col. of Artillery or Infantry 


75.00 


6 


36 


3 


24 


2 


31.00 


166.00 


Lt. Col. of Art. or Infantry 


60 00 


5 


30 


3 


24 


2 


31.00 


145.00 


Major of Art. or Infantry 


50.00 


4 


24 


3 


24 


2 


31.00 


129.00 


Captain of Art. or Infantry 


40.00 


4 


24 


- 


- 


1 


15.50 


79.50 


1st Lt. of Art. or Infantry 


30.00 


4 


24 


- 


- 


1 


15.50 


69.50 


2d Lt. of ArU or Infantry 


25.00 


4 


24 


- 


- 


1 


15.50 


64.50 



Military storekeepers, $1,250 and $800 per annum; cadets at the 
military academy, $24 per month ; chaplains, $500 per annum. Ser- 
geant of dragoons, $13 per month, clothing, and rations; corporal of 
dragoons, $10 per month, clothing, and rations; musician of dragoons, 
$9 per month, clothing, and rations ; private of dragoons, $8 per month, 
clothing, and rations ; sergeant of artillery and infantry, $ 13 per month, 
clothing, and rations ; corporal of artillery and infantry, $9 per month, 
clothing, and rations ; musician of artillery and infantry, $8 per month, 
clothing, and rations ; private of artillery and infantry, $7 per month, 
clothing, and rations. 

United States Army Ration. — Three quarters of a pound of pork or bacon, 
or one pound and a quarter of fresh or salt beef; eighteen ounces of bread or 
flour, or twelve ounces hard bread, or one pound and a quarter of cornmeal ; 
and at the rate of four pounds soap, one pound and a half of candles, two quarts 
salt, four quarts vinegar, eight quarts of peas or beans, or (in lieu thereof) ten 
pounds rice, six pounds coffee, and twelve pounds sugar, to one hundred ra- 
tions. On a campaign, or on board of transports at sea and on the lakes, the 
ration of bread is one pound. 

The value of a ration is fixed by law at 20 cents. The commutation allow- 
ance for forage of horses is $8 per month. The pay and allowances of officers' 
servants are the same as those of a private. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 77 

PAY OF THE BRITISH ARMY. 

Colonel of Dragoons, per annum, j£l,000 

Colonel of other regiments of cavalry, • ... * - 900 

Colonel of regiments of Infantry, 500 

Colonel of West India resiments, * 500 





Daily pay of officers and men. 






Rank. 


Drag'ns. 


Infantrv. 


Rank. 


Drag'ns. 


Infantry. 




£. s. d. 


£. s. d. 




£. s. d. 


£. s. d. 


Lieutenant- Colonel, 


1 3 


17 


Surgeon, - 


13 


13 


Major, 


19 3 


16 


Do., after 10 years, 


15 


15 


Captain, 


14 7 


11 7 


Do., after 25 years, 


1 2 


1 2 


Brevet-Captain, - 




13 7 


Assistant Surgeon, 


8 6 


7 6 


Lieutenant, 


9 


6 6 


Do., after 10 years, 


11 


10 


Db., after 5 years, 


10 


7 


Serjeant, - 


2 2 


1 10 


Ensign, 




5 3 


Corporal, • 


17* 


1 4 


j Paymaster, 


12 6 


12 6 


Private, 


1 3 


1 


1 Do., after 20 years, 

i . , _ 


1 


1 


Musician, - 


1 7 


llf 



Officers and men provision themselves out of their pay; or rather the sol- 
diers are provided for by government, and the charge taken out of their pay. 
This charge can not exceed sixpence (6d.) per day — and leaves the soldier 
(infantry), the same amount. The moral feeling of the world must be sadly 
out of joint, when men can be hired in masses, to kill their fellow-men for 
sixpence a day. 



Militia Force of the United States — From the latest Returns. 



State. 


Com- 


Non com'd 


Aggregate. 


State. 


Com 


Non com'd 


Aggregate. 




miss'd 


officers & 






rrnss'd 


officers & 






officers. 


privates. 






officers. 


privates. 




Maine, 


2,320 


42,345 


44,665 


Alabama, 


2,978 


58,358 


61,336 


N. Hampshire, 


1,606 


28,033 


29,639 


Mississippi, 


825 


35,259 


36,084 


Vermont, 


1,088 


22,827 


23,915 


Louisiana, 


781 


14,027 


14,808 


Massachusetts 


568 


95,271 


95,839 


Texas, 








Rhode Island, 


123 


15,663 


15,786 


Arkansas, 


1,109 


16,028 


17,137 


Connecticut, 


1,324 


56,395 


57.719 


Tennessee, 


3,607 


67,645 


71,252 


New York, 


7,647 


157,897 


165,544 


Kentucky, 


4,873 


86,103 


90,976 


New Jersey, 


1,988 


37,183 


39,171 


Ohio, 


2,051 


174,404 


176.445 


Pennsylvania, 


7,797 


263,890 


271,687 


Indiana, 


2,861 


51,052 


53H13 


Delaware, 


447 


8,782 


9,229 


Illinois, 


_ 


_ 


83,234 


Maryland, 


2,3 97 


44,467 


46,864 


Michigan, 


2,674 


58,212 


60,886 


D. Columbia, 


96 


1,153 


1,249 


Missouri, 


3,919 


57,081 


61,000 


Virginia, 


6,633 


114,703 


121,336 


Wisconsin, 


169 


5,054 


5,223 


N. Carolina, 


4,267 


75,181 


79,448 


Iowa. 










2,598 
3,092 


52 107 


54 705 










Georgia, 


54,220 


, 57,312 




70,458 


1,704,842 


1.858,534 


Florida, 


620 


11,502 


12122 











78 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Abstracts from Laws passed by the, Twenty-ninth Congress, relating to 

the Army. 

By an act approved May 13, 1846, authority was given to increase the 
number of privates to a company in the regular army (from 64) to 100 men. 

The act of July 20, 1846, appropriates $11,957,35*9 for specific objects, for 
pay and supplies of the volunteers and other troops in the war with Mexico. 
The act of August 8, 1846, appropriates $4,636,808, for support of the army 
for the year ending June 30, 1847, and $2,236,274, to meet the expenditures 
incurred under the acts passed the present session, relating to the increase of 
the army. 

By act of June 17, 1846, the allowance for clothing for non-commissioned 
officers and privates of volunteers and militia called into the service of the 
United States, is to be $3.50 per month ; volunteer soldiers in the service en- 
titled to fifty cents in lieu of subsistence, and twenty-five cents in lieu of for- 
age (for those mounted), for every twenty miles by the most direct route, from 
their homes to the place of rendezvous, and from the place of discharge back 
to their homes. 

By the act of January 12, 1847, the term of enlistment is to be for five 
years (the legal term), or " during the war," and a bounty of twelve dollars is 
offered for every able-bodied man who shall enlist to serve in the artillery or 
infantry, during the war. 

The act of February 11, 1847, authorizes the raising and organizing one 
additional regiment of dragoons, and nine regiments of infantry ; with the 
same organization, pay, and allowances, as those of the regular army : one 
or more of the infantry regiments to be equipped as voltigeurs, or foot rifle- 
men : authorizes also an additional major to each regiment of the army, to be 
taken from the captains of the army : declares that the officers and soldiers 
authorized by this act shall be discharged at the close of the war with Mex- 
ico. 

Section 9 grants to every non-commissioned officer, musician, and private sol- 
dier of the regular army and volunteers, who has served or may serve during 
the present war with Mexico, and been honorably discharged^ 160 acres of 
land, or in lieu thereof, at the option of the receiver, treasury scrip for $100, 
bearing six per cent interest, redeemable at the pleasure of the government. 
The land may be located (selected) at any land office in the United States, in 
one body, not to interfere with any pre-emption right, &c. In case of the 
death of a soldier, the certificate for his land shall be issued in favor of his 
relatives, as follows : 1, to his widow and children ; 2, to his father ; 3, to his 
mother. No bounty land is given to volunteers who were discharged without 
being marched to the seat of war. [Applications for bounty land to be made 
to the pension office, which is charged with this business.] 

By the act approved March 2, 1847, making appropriations for the support 
of the amiy and volunteers, the sum of $24,600,152 was appropriated for spe- 
cific objects named, for the year ending June 30, 1848 : and the sum of 
$7,569,524, for deficiencies of former appropriations for the military service. 

By act of March 3, 1847, non-commissioned officers and privates enlisted 
for the new (third) regiment of dragoons, shall be entitled to the twelve dol- 
lars bounty ; the president authorized to promote non-commissioned officers 
who shall distinguish themselves, to be second lieutenants in the army: two 
companies to be added to each regiment of artillery. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



79 



NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
[Abstract of the Navy Register, for 1847.] 

Commissioned and Warrant Officers of the Navy, and Agents. 

Post Captains 64 Professors of Mathematics. . . 

Commanders 97 (Teachers of languages 



Lieutenants 324 

-eons 69 

Assistant Surgeons 67 

Pursers 62 

Chaplains 21 

Masters in line of promotion ... 6 

Passed Midshipmen 206 

Midshipmen 240 

Masters 25 

Master's Mates 9 



. 22 
.2 

Boatswains 32 

Gunners 42 

Carpenters 36 

Sailmakers ■ .31 

Engineer-in-chief. 1 

Chief Engineers 4 

Assistant Engineers 31 

Navy Agents 11 

Naval Storekeepers 8 

Naval Constructors o 



Post-Captains,* in the Order of Rank. 



: 


James Barron. 


23. 


•2 


Charles Stewart. 


21 


3 


Jacob Jones. 


25. 


4 


Charles Morris. 




5 


Lewis Warrington. 


27 


f». 


James Biddle. 




7. 


Charles G. Bidgely. 


i 


- 


John Downs. 




9. 


Stephen Cassin. 


31 


10. 


ATx. S.W ads worth. 


32. 


11. 


George C. Read. 


33. 


12. 


Henry E. Ballard. 


34. 


13. 


Jesse Wilkinson. 


3o. 


14. 


Th. Ap C. Jones. 


: 


15. 


William C. Bolton. 


37. 


l' ? . 


Win. B. Sbubrick. 


38. 


::. 


Charles W. Morgan. 


39. 


is. 


Lawrence Kearny. 


40. 


19. 


Foxhall A. Parker. 


41. 


2d; 


Edward R. M-Call. 


4:2. 


•::. 


Daniel Turner. 


43. 


22 


David Conner. 





Win, N. Hunter. 

John D. Sloat. 
M. C. I 

; VY . Skiuner. 
John T. Newton. 
Joseph Smith. 
Lawr'nce Rousseau. 
Geo. W. Storer. 
Francis H. Gregory-. 
Ph. E. Voorj 
Benj. Cooper. 
David Geisinger. 
Robert F. Stockton. 
Isaac M'Keever. 
John P. Zantzinger. 
William D. Salter. 
Chas. S. M'Cauley. 
Thomas M. Newell. 
E. A. F. Laveilette. 
Thomas T. Webb. 
John Percival. 



I. Aulick. 
illiam V. Taylor. 

46. B'aden Dohray. 

47. Silas H. Slringham. 
4 C . Isaac X 

William Mervine. 

50. Thomas Crabb. 

51. i bomas Paine. 

52. James Armstrong. 

53. Joseph Smoot. 

54. Samuel L. Breese. 

55. Benjamin Page. 

56. John Gwinn. 

b. W, Wyman. 

58. Ariw. Fitzhugh. 

59. Win. K. Latimer. 

'ram Paulding. 
>. P. Levy. 

62. Charles Boarman. 

63. French Forrest. 

64. William Jamessou, 



PAY OF THE NAVY. 

Senior captain, when in service S- 

Senior captain, on leave, or waiting order? 3.500 

All other captains, in command of squadrons, &e 

All other captains, on other duty 3.500 

All other captains, on leave, or waiting orders 2.500 

Commanders, when in sea service 2.500 

Commanders, at navy-yards, or other duty 2,100 

The highest grade known to the law. Captains who have commanded 
squadrons are usually styled - commodores.-' 



80 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Commanders, on leave, or waiting orders . • $1,800 

Lieutenants, when commanding 1,800 

Lieutenants, on other duty 1,500 

Lieutenants, waiting orders 1,200 

Surgeons, for the first five years, sea service 1,333 

Surgeons, for the second five years . . 1,600 

Surgeons for the third five years 1,866 

Surgeon, for the fourth five years 2,133 

Surgeons, after twenty years' service, at sea 2,400 

Assistant surgeons., waiting orders 650 

Assistant surgeons, at sea 950 

Assistant surgeons, after passing for surgeons 850 

Assistant surgeons at sea, after passing for surgeons 1,200 

Chaplains, when on sea service, or at navy-yard 1,200 

Chaplains, on leave, or waiting orders 800 

Professors of mathematics, on sea-service, &c 1,200 

Sailing-masters, in a ship-of-the-line 1,100 

Sailing-masters, on other duty 1,000 

Sailing-masters, on leave 750 

Passed midshipmen, on duty 750 

Passed midshipmen, waiting orders • . . . . 600 

Master's mates 450 

Master's mates, on leave 300 

Midshipmen, on service . r 400 

Midshipmen, on other duty 350 

Midshipmen, on leave 300 

Pursers, of ships-of-the-line . . . , 3,500 

Pursers, of frigates 3,000 

Pursers, of sloops or steamers of first class 2,000 

Pursers, of brigs, schooners, and steamers of second class. . . . 1,500 

Pursers, at navy-yards, $2,500, and 2'000 

Boatswains, on service in ships-of-the-line 800 

Boatswains, on other duty 700 

Boatswains, on leave, first ten years' service 500 

Boatswains, on leave, after ten years' service 600 

Gunners, on service in ships-of-the-line 800 

Gunners, on other duty 700 

Gunners, on leave, first ten years' service 500 

Gunners, on leave, after ten years' service 600 

Carpenters, on service in ships-of-the-line 800 

Carpenters, on other duty 700 

Carpenters, on leave, first ten years' service 500 

Carpenters, on leave, after ten years' service 600 

Sailmakers, on service in ships-of-the-line 800 

Sailmakers, on duty 700 

Sailmakers, on leave, first ten years' service 500 

Sailmakers, on leave, after ten years' service 600 

Engineer in chief 3,000 

Chief engineers, in service 1,500 

Chief engineers, waiting orders , 1,200 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 81 

Assistant engineers, from $500 to $900 

Assistant engineers, waiting orders, from $350 to 700 

Navy agents, commissions not to exceed 2,000 

Chief naval constructor 3,000 

Naval constructors 2,300 

Secretaries, to commanders in chief of squadrons 1,000 

Secretaries, to commanders not in chief 900 

Clerks, of yards, or to commandants of yards , 900 

Clerks, to commanders of vessels, to pursers, and in navy-yards 500 
Petty Officers. — Armorers, master's mates, master at arms, cox- 
swains, quartermasters and gunners, coopers, painters, stew- 
ards, cooks, &c, per month, $15 to 25 

Seamen, per month 12 

Ordinary seamen, per month 10 

Landsmen, per month 9 

Boys, per month, $6 to 8 

Marine Corps. — Consists of: — 

1 colonel commanding, pay, $75 per month, and 12 rations per day. 

1 lieut. colonel " 60 " 5 « 

4 majors, each, " 50 " 4 " 

13 captains, each, « 40 " 4 " 

20 1st lieutenants, each " 30 " 4 " 

20 2d lieutenants, each " 25 " 4 " 
The value of a ration is twenty cents, the same as in the army. 



Navy Ration. — The following is the daily allowance of provisions for each 
person on duty in the navy : 1 lb. salt pork, £ pt. peas or beans; or 1 lb. salt 
beef, with £ lb. of flour and \ lb. of raisins, dried apples, or other dried fruits*; 
or 1 lb. salt beef, with £ lb. rice, 2 oz. butter, and 2 oz. cheese, together with 
14 oz. biscuit, \ oz. of tea, or one ounce of coffee or cocoa; 2 oz. of sugar, and 
1 gill of spirits ; and a weekly allowance of \ lb. pickles or cranberries, £ pt. 
of molasses, and £ pt. of vinegar. 

\\ lbs. fresh meat may be substituted for the salt pork and beef, and vege- 
tables or sourcrout for the other articles, the substituted articles being of equal 
value to the others. 

To vary the ration, 1 lb. of soft bread, or 1 lb. of flour, or £ lb. of rice, 
may be substituted for the 14 oz. of biscuit; £ pt. wine, for a gill of spirits; 
£ lb. rice, for £ pt. beans or peas ; £ pt. beans or peas, for £ lb. rice. 

In case of necessity, the daily ration may be diminished ; but all persons so 
curtailed shall be entitled to pay for the diminution. 

No commissioned officer or midshipman, nor any person under twenty-one 
years of age, can draw the spirit ration ; but every persoVi who shall relin- 
quish the spirit ration, shall be paid the value thereof in money. 

Note. — Twenty cents a month are deducted from the pay of every officer in 
the navy, for the support of naval hospitals. 

Navy Ration of Great Britain. — One lb. of biscuit, 1 oz. of cocoa, \ oz. of 
tea, ? pt. spirits ; or 1 pt. wine, f lb. beef, with f lb. flour, and f lb. pork, with 
£ pt. peas on alternate days ; or 1 lb. fresh meat, and 9 oz. of vegetables. Part 
of the flour may be exchanged for suet, currants, and raisins; 1 pt. of oatmeal, 
and 10 oz. of sugar per week. After ten days of salt provisions, an allowance 
of lemonade. 



m 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



VESSELS OF WAR. U. S. NAVY. 

1 Ship-of-the-line, 120 guns — Pennsylvania. 
10 Ships-of-the-line, 74 guns — Franklin, Columbus, Ohio, North 
Carolina, Delaware, Alabama, Vermont, Virginia, New York, 
New Orleans. 
The last five are on the stocks, not yet launched. 

1 Razee of 54 guns — Independence. 

12 Frigates of 44 guns — Uuited States, Constitution, Potomac, 

Brandy wine, Columbia, Congress, Cumberland, Savannah, Rar- 
itan, Santee, Sabine, St. Lawrence. 
The last two on the stocks. 

2 Frigates of 36 guns — Constellation, Macedonian. 

16 Sloops-of-war of 20 guns— Saratoga, John Adams, Vincennes, 
Warren, Falmouth, Fairfield, Vandalia, St. Louis, Cyane, Le- 
vant, Portsmouth, Plymouth, St. Mary, Jamestown, Albany, 
Germantown. 
1 Sloop-of-war of 18 guns — Ontario. 
5 Sloops-of-war of 16 guns — Decatur, Preble, Yorktown, Marion, 

Dale. 

48 Ships. 

5 Brigs of 10 guns each — Boxer, Dolphin, Porpoise, Bainbridge, 

Perry. 
9 Schooners, 1 of 10 guns— Shark; Experiment, Flirt, Wave, Phe- 
nix, Oukahye, Bonito, Reefer, Petrel. 

14 Brigs and schooners. 

13 Steamers — Mississippi, 10 guns; Fulton and Union, 4 each; 

Princeton, 9 ; Michigan, 1 (on Lake Erie) ; Spitfire and Vixen, 
3 each : Allegany, Scorpion, Scourge, General Taylor, Water- 
witch, Engineer. 
The brigs, schooners, and steamers, are chiefly employed in the 
war with Mexico. 

6 Store-ships and brigs — Relief, Erie, Lexington, Southampton, 

Supply, Fredonia. 
Store-ships are employed in carrying stores to squadrons on foreign 
stations. 

Cost of building some of the vessels in the navy. 



Ship Pennsylvania - 


$687,026 


Sloop Lexington 


$114,622 


" Columbus 


426,931 


" Warren - 


99,416 


" Ohio 


547,889 


" Falmouth 


94,093 


" North Carolina 


431,852 


" Fairfield 


100,490 


" Delaware 


543,368 


" Levant 


146,209 


Frigate United States 


299,336 


" Vandalia 


90,979 


■" Constitution 


302,718 


" St. Louis 


102,461 


" Potomac 


231,013 


Brig Boxer - 


30,697 


" Brandywine 


299,218 


" Dolphin 


38,522 


" Columbia 


302,511 


Schooner Shark 


23,627 


Sloop John Adams - 


110,670 


Steamer Mississippi 


553,531 


" Boston - -- - 


91,973 


Fulton 


333,770 


" Vincennes 


111,512 






Number of day's work in building tl 


le Delaware 74 guns, 143,980 





GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



83 



There are navy-yards for building and repairing ships of-war, at Portsmouth, 
N. H., Charlestown, Mass., Brooklyn, N. Y., Philadelphia, Penu., Washington, 
D. C, Gosport, Va., and Pcnsacola*, Fla. 

Squadrons of navy vessels are employed on the various stations named be- 
low, for the protection of American commerce and interests. 

Home squadron, Brazil squadron, Pacific squadron, African squadron, East 
India squadron. 



Naval Force of 


Great Brita 


n. 






Rate. 


In 
commission. 


Building. 


In 

ordinary. 


Total 

vessels. 


Ships of the-line. 


Ves- 
sels. 


Guns. 


Ves- 
sels. 


Guns. 
2,124 


Ves- 
sels. 

75 


Guns. 

6,258 


115 


17 


1,570 


23 


Frigates. 


32 


1,146! 15 


498 


73 


3,066 


120 


Sloops of war, &c. 


71 


8561 21 


305 


40 


521 


132 


Schooners, cutters, &c. 


33 


66 - 


- 


6 


18 


39 


Steam-frigates. 


6 


60, 12 


120 


4 


40 


22 


Steam sloops. 


54 


270 


20 


100 


6 


30 


80 


Steam-packets. 


21 


42 


3 


6 


- 


- 


24 


Other steamers. 


9 


18 


•6 


12 


- 


- 


15 


Transport-ships. 


5 


70 


- 


- 


- 


- 


5 


Receiving ships, &c. 


84 
332 


485 


- 


- 


204 


- 


84 


4,583 


100 


3,165 


9,933 


636 



Number of men employed in the navy, 1846 

II boyg II it 



27,500 

2,000 

10,500 



Total ........ 40,000 

Revenue vessels, commanded by naval officers, 72, mounting 144 guns. 
Steamships of the East India company, 22, guns 66.* 
East India mail-steamers, 9, guns 27. 
Other mail-steamers, 35. 

Total war-steamers, 142 ; total mail-steamers, 57=199 steam-ships under 
control of the government. 



Naval Force of France. 



Rate. 


In com- 


Build- 


Ordi- 


Total. 


Guns. 




mission. 


ing. 


nary. 






Ships-of-the-line. 


17 


25 


4 


46 


4,380 


Frigates. 


23 


16 


6 


45 


2,304 


Corvettes and sloops. 


17 


3 


6 


26 


658 


Brigs, schooners, and transports. 


104 


14 


43 


161 


1,156 


Steam-frigates. 


5 


2 


- 


7 


90 


Steam-sloops. 


8 


9 


- 


17 


116 


Small steamers. 


41 


3 


- 


44 


224 


215 


72 


59 


346 


8,928 



Men and boys in the naval service, in 1845, 27,554. 



84 



GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Naval Force of Russia, 

Ships-of-the-line in the Baltic sea - 
Ships-of-the-line in the Black sea 
Frigates in the Baltic sea 
Frigates in the Black sea 
Sloops, brigs, &c, in the Baltic sea 
Sloops, brigs, &c, in the Black sea 
Steamers in the Baltic sea 
Steamers in the Black sea 



Number of men in the Baltic and Black sea fleets, 59,000. 



30 
17 
20 
10 
40 
30 
26 
6 

179 



2,400 guns. 
1,360 guns. 

840 guns. 

510 guns. 

320 guns. 

326 gans. 

104 guns. 
36 guns. 



5,896 



Thus we have completed the task assigned to ourselves at the com- 
mencement of this chapter, by giving a full and comprehensive view of the 
government in all its departments, executive, legislative, judicial, civil, and 
military ; and its officers and agents, from the private soldier (who probably 
stands at the foot of the list with respect to pay), to the supreme executive 
magistrate. We are not aware that so much and so valuable information on 
this subject, has been brought together in any publication. It has been collected 
from almost innumerable sources — public documents chiefly, and other reliable 
statements — and with an immense amount of research and labor. Our object 
has been to make it instructive and useful, as a work of convenient reference 
to the mass of our intelligent and active population, who are individually and 
personally interested in the management of public affairs ; to whom all gov- 
ernment officers and agents are responsible. 



A Novel in a Nutshell. 

According to the administration of justice in the conclusion of 
every English novel, the characters are all drawn up as on the 
day of judgment, in two lines — the vicious all whipped, and the 
virtuous all married (that being considered the highest earthly re- 
ward of virtue) — where, in the last chapter, a great Christmas 
pie is regularly served up to the meritorious, each one of whom 
puts in his thumb and pulls out a plum, and says, " What a good 
boy am I," while the villains look on and gnash their teeth in de- 
spair. Even Scott was often forced to comply with this romantic 
jurisprudence, though he ridiculed it. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 85 



CHAPTER VI. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

TARIFFS — TAXATION — RICH AND FOOR. 

The proper adjustment of the tariff, that is, the duties or cus- 
toms, to be paid on imported goods, is a subject of continual strife 
and disagreement, between the two great political parties. 

On one side it is contended that we ought to protect our own 
manufactures, so as to provide for our own wants, in case of war ; 
to furnish a home market for our produce ; to give useful employ- 
ment to our own citizens ; and to make ourselves independent of 
foreign nations. * 

On the other side, a high tariff is resisted, because it restricts 
the freedom of trade and commerce ; increases the price of goods 
to the consumer ; operates unequally on different sections of the 
country, and offers a bounty to manufacturers at the expense of 
the community. 

It is a great question : whether there should be a»y duty on im- 
port of goods, and if any, what amount, and on what articles ? 
It is a question of the greatest magnitude, involving other ques- 
tions of sectional and national interest, and embracing the whole 
field of political economy, in its relations and bearings upon the 
commerce and industry of the civilized world. But its very mag- 
nitude is a reason why it should be discussed, and its merits in- 
vestigated, by a people who are emphatically sovereign and inde- 
pendent in their own right, and who are the proper judges of 
their own interests. One great reason why the practical effects 
of a tariff are so little understood, is that it is made a hobby-horse 
by politicians to ride into public favor. Demagogues take delight 
in mystifying what is plain, and explaining what is inexplicable, 
in order to get the votes and favor of the dear people, for whose 
real interests they care not a farthing. 

We intended to devote a few pages to a fair and impartial state- 
ment of the arguments on both sides of this subject ; but, upon 
reflection, judge a better service maybe done the public, by going 
a step beyond, and offering a few suggestions, not on the merits 
of a high or low tariff, but on the principle on which all tariffs 
are based, and the reasons for their adoption.* A ship arrives in 

* It is one of the indisputable privileges of freeborn Americans to grumble. 
But they have very little appreciation of their favorable circumstances com- 
pared with other nations. They complain of a slight duty or tax on imported 
goods : how wouM they like also an export duty ? Even in the great and en* 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



2r of £ Z 3 3 ^ arg ° ° f SUgar from the West ^ies. An offi- 

toftv :fr ?r on board and deman ^ Mn y z 

b land Wh a ?] ld ° r SCCUred t0 government, before it 
Wh J J,f < hat does g° ver nment want of this monev « 

Why must every consumer of this sugar pay nearly onTthfrd 

bTno&XL Ki 5? natlonaI . w elfare hare been promoted 

Or tf exacted \! I P J ° ple F the sha P e of tari ff ta *es ? 

^r, ii exacted, has its expenditure been made in the most indi 
emus manner, with reference to the best iut^o&S^ 

attenHon^f e ^ UCSti 5 nS ™ e ask f d as an ^reduction, and to fix the 
!nn T f the reader u P° n a few remarks we purpose o make 
upon the causes and practical results of tariff duLsCd MS 

First then, we say that tariffs, and all restrictions on trade and 
commerce, are pre udicial to the best interests of mlnLndindi 
eating an unnatural artifical state of society, and suZSeTf the 
ST to be^ ° f D ,T ne Pr - idenc e. God made mTefe^y! 
llhnr t 6e F the P ursuit ' interchange, and reward of his 

hare inYun^e S?f" '¥* ' F" *?* that men ^ a « equa 
WKtVf sunshlne and air. Look at the subject a moment in the 
light of reason and common sense. The elements of naTure earth 
air, sunshine and rain, are free to all-men are eyervwhere en' 
dowed individually with capacities, physical and mentll for ob-" 
taming and enjoying the blessings of life-the raw material is 

The hat on his head, the coat on his back, the hoTe in his cart the 

„,, P a Jm& animal. Amid all the riches of the world and ih* 
outpoured bounties of nature, millions of our race Te at this mn 
mem on the verge of starvation, and otfa«^aK££ I &'£ 
constant struggle to maintain life. One third of the hun I n race 
are already too poor to pay direct taxes, and their Lea" and toil 

P^^^^^^^reaheavydntyon al . goods in, 
productions co^ea^ttl^K eXP ° ned ' *** 8,W an0t " er °" 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 87 

are exacted to pay the taxes of others. Three of the great nations 
of Europe collect more money by different modes of taxation, ev- 
ery year, than the great state of New York is worth altogether, 
including the city. 

Why is one man rich and another poor ?* One man in New 
York owns, perhaps, a thousand houses ; one thousand other men 
do not own one. Was this the design of Divine Providence in 
the order of society ? Certainly not. The equality of men in nat- 
ural endowments "and propensities, and the universal diffusion of 
the bounties of nature, render it certain that the distinctions which 
prevail among men, are the result of their own ignorance and 
folly : the only agency the Almighty has in it is that of permis- 
sion, not of authority. 

The unequal distribution of property is altogether of human 
origin. But riches do not necessarily constitute a crime in the 
possessor. He may be as honest and humane as any of his ten- 
ants or laborers. It is the fault of the poor man's ignorance of 
his true interest. Let us prove this. If the aggregate or sum total 
of wealth in the community (and we mean here in America, where 
property is more equally distributed than in any part of the civil- 
ized world) should be divided into two equal portions, with the 
rich on one side and the poor on the other, it would be found that 
one fourth (probably less) of the population possess one half of 
the property, leaving three fourths or more to possess the other 
half. Then, according to the principles of our democratic insti- 
tutions, the three fourths ought to control and regulate society. 
But such is not the fact. The few rich have always governed the 
world, and the many poor and middling class have acquiesced in 
the government. So it ever has been and ever will be, until the 
latter take juster views of their own interests, and exert wiser 
measures for their own elevation. The truth is, the mass of men 
have always stood directly in their, own light. Whether in de- 
spotic Babylon, or aristocratic Venice, or modern Russia, the re- 
sult has been the same ; and there is but too much evidence in 
the present state of society, that democratic Americans, with all 
the experience of ages, are inclined to follow in the servile track 
of their predecessors, instead of striking out a new and more ele- 
vated path. In former ages and other countries the masses have 
bowed their own necks to the yoke, instead of throwing the bur- 

* In answer to this question as a moral one, we are perfectly satisfied it is 
so ordered by Omnipotence, for the best pood of mankind. All experience 
proves (and the Bible corroborates the truth), that prosperity is harder to bear 
than adversity — for nations as well as men. There is nothing like industry 
and toil to keep men out of mischief— from indulging the grovelling and de- 
basing appetites of nature. Man knows he is immortal, and yet devotes one 
thought to his future, and a thousand to his earthly being. His aim is, rest in 
splendor, and the applause of his fellow-men. Surely, that restraint is merci- 
ful, which keeps him from self idolatry. 

8* 



bO POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

den on those able to bear it without inconvenience. Is it not the 
same in this country at present ? Take the subject of taxation 
for illustration. A poor farmer will not consent to be taxed one 
dollar on his ten-acre lot of land — direct taxes are too burdensome ; 
he prefers to be taxed indirectly ten dollars, on his sugar, and 
salt, and horseshoes. His rich neighbor possessing 500 acres of < 
land consumes but little more sugar, salt, or iron (though perhaps 
of a better quality), than he does, and as land is not taxed, he saves 
fifty dollars a year, while the poor man saves one. Again, the 
common laborer pays a poll tax of one dollar, and the man whose 
wealth accumulates like a rolling ball of snow pays the same. 
Take another example. The capitalist who employs one hundred 
laborers in manufacturing, pays fifty dollars direct tax on his fac- 
tory and stock, one dollar poll tax, and twenty dollars indirect 
tax, on his cloth, salt, sugar, &c. Fifty of his laborers are heads 
of families, who pay each one dollar poll, and five dollars indirect 
tax on articles of consumption. What is the aggregate. One 
capitalist pays $71 for the benefit of society ; fifty laborers pay 
$300 for the same object. Now look at the ability. The capital- 
ist obtains a clear profit of twenty cents a day from each laborer. 
His wealth then will be increased in three hundred working days, 
or a year, $6,000. Each laborer saves twenty cents a day over 
the support of his family, and he is $60 richer at the end of the 
year. Now deduct the taxes : $6,000 minus $71, leaves $5,929 
clear income of the employer ; and $60 minus $6, leaves $54, of 
the employed. The former pays $1 in $84 of his income ; the 
latter $1 in $10, or more than eightfold, in proportion. Were 
the capitalist obliged to pay the whole tax, his income would still 
be $5,629, against each laborer's $60. His income is just double 
that of the whole fifty laborers. 

Take another view of the subject (one showing the principal 
causes of all taxation, and dedicated expressly to the working- 
man) : Two nations have a dispute about a boundary line, a point 
of honor, or an alleged insult : there is no umpire between them, 
and they rush into war. Human life is not short enough and mis- 
erable enough without the burning and pillage of cities, the de- 
struction of the fruits of industry, and frequent periods of whole- 
sale slaughter. # Each nation has the right on its own side, as a 

* To go to war to settle a national dispute, is about as judicious and as 
economical a measure, as for a man to burn down his house to destroy a nest 
of rats in the wall. His object is effected, for his enemies are conquered, but 
at what cost 1 There is not an expression of keener irony of human nature, 
than the sentiment of some philosopher, who contended that the body politic 
needed frequent bleeding - , like the human system, by way of depletion for 
gross humors, that is, by killing off the vagabonds and rowdies in war, society 
might be preserved from corruption. We believe the practice of blood-let- 
ting is getting out of fashion among medical men — when will the same be true 
of national practitioners ? 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 89 

matter of course ; each solemnly appeals to Heaven for the jus- 
tice of its cause, and for aid in destroying human life ; and each 
intends to conquer, or at least humble the other. Now pause and 
inquire, what class of men are most clamorous and ready for the 
fight ? who shout loudest, " Not a cent for tribute" — " Our coun- 
try, right or wrong" ? Are they not the laborers and working- 
men, the very class which has nothing to gain, and everything to 
lose, by war ? In war, the poor man burns all the powder, gets 
most of the hard fare and harder bruises, and carries off the small- 
est fraction of the glory. You can not get a musket on a rich 
man's shoulder (though the expected glory may induce him to 
command) ; he does not want war. He will, perhaps, frankly tell 
you the war will be cruel, expensive, and unnecessary, and had 
better be avoided. But you will not believe him. He prefers his 
enjoyments in peace, but, if the people will have war, he stands 
aloof or acquiesces, for he knows after the desolation is over, al- 
though his property may be lessened in value amid the common 
ruin, that he can hire laborers to restore it at greatly reduced wa- 
ges. But nations, like individuals, become ashamed or weary of 
contention ; the nice point of honor which begun it is satisfied 
with a victory or forgotten ; passion has subsided, and the offers 
of a third party to reconcile differences are accepted. Not a foot 
of territory perhaps has changed hands ; everything remains as 
before — all but the silent dead and mutilated living, countries 
desolated, and widows and orphans clothed in weeds — everything, 
except the reckoning. Each nation is in debt tens or hundreds of 
millions. This must be paid. The government proposes to tax 
the wealth of the rich. " No," says the latter ; " we did not want 
the war, let those pay for it who urged it on." Government turns 
to the people : " You are brave men in battle ; you have fought 
like heroes ; you have conquered a glorious peace. We want 
your help now to pay the debt." — " Yes," answers the working- 
man — " We are all free and equal ; I have no property, but you 
may tax me — tax my head, and feet, and hands — my food and 
drink — my clothing, tools, and labor, and those of my children 
after me." 

There is not a particle of fancy in this statement ; it is but a 
mere dim outline of the reality. That war produces nearly all 
the enormous expenditures of nations, and that these expenses are 
entailed upon the mass of the people as a grievous burden, we 
will only cite the case of England in proof. What has war done 
for England? Let the following statement of the increase of 
tariff duties for the last two and a half centuries answer. In 
1596 (two hundred and fifty years ago), in the reign of Elizabeth, 
the revenue from customs in England was £50,000 : — 



90 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Revenue from English Customs at several Periods. 



In 1596 £50,000 

In 1613 ----- 148,075 

In 1660 421,582 

In 1712 1,315,422 



In 1763 (83 yrs. ago) £2,000,000 
In 1792 - - - - 4,407,000 
In 1815 - - - - 11,360,000 
In 1840 - - - - 23,341,000 



An increase of nearly twelve hundred fold in less than two hun- 
dred and fifty years ; and remember that the above constitutes 
only one great branch of English taxation, viz. : that from cus- 
toms or duties on goods. We need not write a word to prove 
that the English debt and consequent taxation is nearly all the 
result of war ; — the fact is notorious. Our object is to inquire, 
who pay this tax ? Brande's dictionary, under the head of " taxa- 
tion," gives the rates of duties and other taxes in 1840. We will 
quote a few articles of universal consumption : — 

Duty on coffee - - - - 6d. per lb., equal to 11 or 12 cents. 
Duty on tea (bohea) - - Is, 6d. per lb"., equal to 36 cents. 

Duty on tea (congou, &c.) 2s. 2d. per lb., equal to 52 cents. 

Duty on tea (hyson) - - 35. per lb., equal to 70 cents. 

Average duty on British plantation sugar - - £1 8s v per cwt. 
\verage duty on foreign sugar 3 3s. per cwt. 

By comparing different items in the tables from which we have 
quoted, it appears that sugar and molasses alone are taxed about 
four times as much, and tea alone pays nearly three times as much, 
as all the land in the kingdom. The nobles and gentry own most 
of the land, and the common people drink most of the tea and 
coffee, and consume most of the sugar. Such is the constitution 
of society — such the consequences of war. 

If an objection be raised here, that the foregoing statement is 
not applicable to the present British tariff, in which great reduc- 
tions have been and are being made — we reply, that all the reduc- 
tions made or to be made will strengthen our position : we abom- 
inate war, we object to the principle on which taxes are levied, 
and assert that the populace are burdened. Now, if the English 
government has reduced or abolished the duties on the necessaries 
of life, it is positive proof that the poor were oppressed by these 
duties ; if, with her enormous debt, she can still spare large de- 
ductions from the revenue, it is conclusive evidence that nations 
out of debt can do without a tariff; and if, with all her wealth 
and strength, England is averse to war, there is some ground to 
hope that reason and humanity are-returnjng to earth, and begin- 
ning to exert a healthful influence among nations. 

But there is another view to the subject, which we are bound 
in all honesty to present, as our object is, not to ride a hobby, or 
excite mobbish applause, but to disabuse the people, whose friend 
we are, of all error. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 91 

The workingmaivwho reads the preceding statements will 
say, "It is all true ;" and perhaps will add : " Yes, the poor are 
oppressed by the rich." We have said no such thing ; and not 
only deny it, but will endeavor to prove that the poor are their 
own oppressors. We have hinted at this in our former remarks ; 
but we wish to present it in stronger light. The deep feeling 
which exists on this subject among many of the poor in this, as 
in every country, and which is inflamed by ignorant, selfish, 
would-be reformers, is entirely wrong and mischievous. There 
is no combination among the rich — -probably there never was in 
any country — for the purpose of oppressing the poor. All the dis- 
abilities to which the latter are subjected, can be accounted for 
without such an inference. The rich man covets to enjoy his 
riches in peace. This very naturally leads him to avoid coming 
in contact with irresponsible persons, and to approve of strong 
measures for the security of the rights of property and the peace 
of society. He will not willingly employ laborers who .spend 
their time and substance at the grog-shop, or who promise and 
do not perform. He may be utterly mean, and wish to hire at 
half-price, but he can compel nobody to labor for him, and must 
be the sole judge of the value of labor to himself. As a matter 
of course, his intimate associates are those who are like him in 
wealth, education, manners, and dress. In all this, there is prop- 
erly ?io oppression. He has the same right to dispose of his thou- 
sands, as the poor man has of his single dollar. The rich and 
the poor are both pursuing precisely the same object, namely, the 
advancement of their own interests. The laborer will not work 
for fifty cents a day, if he can get seventy-five ; the capitalist will 
not employ labor if he can make more profit by speculation. The 
poor man, whose vices or improvidence or ignorance, keep him 
poor, can not charge his neighbor with oppression, because his 
own shrewdness, knowledge, or economy, has made the latter rich. 
The truth is, money is the universal god — of the poor as well as 
the rich — and the success of the latter in acquiring it excites the 
envy of the former. This love of money is so strong, there is 
such a charm in the idea of riches, that the poor man pays def- 
erence to it even in the possession of another, instead of asserting 
a proper independence. This is the reason — the idol, money, is 
bo dazzling — why the poor and middling classes are blinded to 
their own interest, and assent to laws favoring the rich. We ac- 
knowledge the laws favor the rich, but we assert these laws were 
made by the poor. We have shown that three fourths of the 
community possess but half or less than half the property, and 
may therefore be called (in comparison) poor. But where every 
man is a voter (as in most of the states), these three fourths make 
all the laws, in fact ; and these laws, as before stated, levy taxes 
on polls and sugar and salt, instead of property and capital; and 



92 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

sanction foolish and wicked and expensive wars, and make the 
poor man's food and clothing pay for the glory. Verily, if the 
poor as a class or as individuals, will saddle and bridle themselves, 
they may reasonably expect to find somebody willing to ride. 

One more observation: " Education makes the man." # The 
greatest distinction between the classes of society (at least in our 
country), is that caused by ignorance. The difference between 
knowledge and ignorance is almost as great as between mind and 
matter. The former leads the latter, blindfolded. The one, active, 
leads the other, passive, at will. All the wealth of the world is the 
product of labor, but all that labor would have been nearly in vain 
without the directing mind. The rich man is generally better 
educated, and consequently he does the headwork, the laborer the 
handwork. But the laborer will have it so. Knowledge is uni- 
versally admitted to be both a positive and negative good, and in 
a democracy indispensable. It teaches men their rights, interests, 
and dangers — that is positive ; negative, it guards against vice, 
crime, and error. But the poor man with a troop of children 
around him, will not vote a tax on property for education, because 
it will cost himself a dollar. The consequence is, he pays five 
or tenfold more in tuition, or leaves his children in ignorance. 
The rich are more willing to be taxed for schools than the poor, 
while the latter need them far more than the former. We could 
instance states and cities, where the majority, resisting every prop- 
osition for general taxation for public schools, are thankful for a 
small pittance derived from a public fund or from lotteries, with 
which they manage to keep up cheap schools for their exclusive 
benefit.f They appear determined to exclude themselves from 
equal advantages in society, by being satisfied with, and monopo- 
lizing a low standard of education. The rich will never come 
down to the standard of the poor ; but the poor may easily level 

* We will adopt this common maxim in its fullest extent, with the term fe- 
male before it. The world will become " right side up," when female educa- 
tion is truly appreciated, rightly understood, and thoroughly accomplished — 
and not till then. 

t We recently observed a statement in some able paper, setting forth that 
the mechanics in a neighboring city had formed themselves into an associa- 
tion for mutual improvement, and were rejoicing in the anticipation of having 
a good mechanical school, &c. Don't do it. That association is well enough, 
but take a " sober second thought" about that school. It looks exclusive, as 
though you wanted to be isolated — too high or too low — and not a component 
part of the community. Instead of over-taxing yourselves for a " mechanic's 
school," go to the polls and tax the property of the city for a public school or 
schools, numerous enough for the whole population, and ample enough to em- 
ploy professors of mechanics, and of every other useful subject of study. 
You will pay your own proportion, of course, and not only those above you 
in wealth, but the thousands below you, will have equal advantages of the 
highest education. All the children belong to the state, and it is your duty 
to provide them with an equal share of its privileges. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 93 

themselves up to the standard of the rich, on this subject. If they 
properly appreciated education, and justly regarded their own in- 
terests, they would vote a tax on property, sufficient to sustain 
schools for the whole population, of the highest order. The 
heaviest burden would fall on the rich, and their interest would 
lead them to follow their money — they would bring their children 
and their influence into these public schools, sustained by their 
taxes, and exercise a watchful care over them. The children of 
the poor would thus have not only equal privileges of education, 
but all the advantages to be derived from association with those 
who are their superiors in influence, manners, and self-respect. 
The advantages of this system are all on the side of the poor — it 
affords the most certain means for their elevation — and they have 
the power to accomplish it : — but, who can give eyes to the blind ? 

We have perhaps exceeded our proper limits, but could not well 
present the few great truths we have endeavored to inculcate 
upon the popular mind, in a shorter space. 

We offer a few brief remarks incidental to the leading subject 
of this chapter, viz., tariffs. 

1. As a consequence of high duties, smuggling is carried on sys- 
tematically wherever they exist, and to an extent which deducts 
a large amount from the revenue, and greatly tends to demoralize 
the public mind. Some idea may be formed of the great army of 
revenue officers kept in pay by the governments of Europe, from 
the cost of collecting the revenue in G-reat Britain. The duties 
were collected in 1840, at a charge of £4 18s. lOd. per cent, in 
England, and of £10 8s. 3d. in Ireland. A celebrated writer says : 
" Smuggling is wholly the result of vicious legislation. It is the 
fruit of oppressively high duties, or of prohibitions of imports. 
A prohibition against importing a commodity does not take away 
the taste for it ; and a high duty occasions a universal desire to 
evade its payment. The smuggler is generally a popular charac- 
ter, and whatever the law may declare, it is quite ludicrous to 
expect that the bulk of society will ever be brought to think that 
those who furnish them with cheap brandy, sugar, or tobacco, are 
guilty of any very heinous offence. To create by means of high 
duties an overwhelming temptation to indulge in crime, and then 
to punish men for indulging in it, is a proceeding completely sub- 
versive of every principle of justice. High duties are in effect, 
nothing but high bounties for the violation of law." 

2. We are afraid of the demoralizing influence of large manu- 
facturing establishments upon the mass of laborers. Such has 
been the result in England and Europe, and such will be the in- 
evitable tendency among a class of hereditary operatives. We 
were once told by an English manufacturer, that there was not a 
wife or a daughter in their establishment who would refuse any- 
thing asked for by one of their employers. The fault is not in the 



94 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

employers, but in human nature, and incident to the business. 
Salaried situations are, in a pecuniary point of view, the most 
undesirable stations in society. A fixed and regular income leads 
(o habits of expenditure at variance with thrift and accumulation. 
Especially is this true among classes who had been accustomed 
to hard toil and scanty living. He who receives a dollar daily 
can afford a little extravagance to-day, for he knows he can re- 
place his expended dollar to-morrow ; not reflecting that indul- 
gence is leading him to expensive and inveterate habits. Beer is 
the bane of the English, whiskey and tobacco of the American 
working-man. We shall be told here that the factory laborers in 
Lowell are patterns of industry, thrift, and good morals. Granted. 
They are under an admirable police of union regulations. No 
bad characters are retained or admitted. A high standard of 
morals and tone of public sentiment prevails through the com- 
munity. Great encouragement is held out for religious and intel- 
lectual improvement. The girls (it is said) do not remain at the 
factories more than three or four years, on an average. We ad- 
mit the high character of the Lowell operatives, but should be 
unwilling to guaranty the same reputation to the next generation, 
thirty years hence. Moreover, we will aver that there are hun- 
dreds of factory families in the same state of Massadiusetts — (and 
she, like the son of Kish, the highest in the family, in industry, 
morals, and thrift, and everything that makes a state great, ex- 
cept a spice of the old leaven of religious intolerance yet remain- 
ing, and the outrage of burning a Romish convent) — hundreds of 
families too poor to remove from one factory to another, and who 
live in ignorance, filth, and debasement, though at the same time 
in the receipt of regular and profitable wages. Then contrast the 
humble condition of the laborers with the princely fortunes ac- 
cumulated by their employers. This can not be avoided. With 
capital, enterprise, industry, and good management, success is in- 
evitable. We doubt not the wages are as high as the contingen- 
cies of the business will afford, and we know that as a class 
northern capitalists and employers are actively engaged in pro- 
moting knowledge, good morals and habits, among the employed. 
The latter can not better themselves by any endeavors to pull 
their employers down; their only hope of improvement is by 
pulling themselves up. But we can not forego the conclusion, 
founded on much observation and reflection, that the inevitable 
tendency of large manufacturing establishments is to perpetuate 
a race or class of thriftless, ignorant, immoral laborers, but a 
short step removed from pauperism. This is the rule ; Lowell 
is an exception, at present — may its future be ever the same ! 

3. It can not be questioned, that a mighty movement is in 
progress at the present day on the right understanding of political 
economy, " We live in a great age," The masses are beginning 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 95 

to think. New light is breaking forth — even the idea is hazarded 
that a man is a man, an individual, a unit, a something of itself, 
an accountable being — heretofore considered only a component 
and inseparable part of a machine. The welfare of nations and 
individuals ; the relations of capital and labor ; taxation, its causes 
and effects ; the rights, duties, and obligations of men as individ- 
uals and citizens; are subjects on which common men may think 
and express opinions. American liberty gave the first impulse to 
this revolution : the Infinite Mind only knows where it will end. 
But one fact is remarkable. English intelligence and action are 
perhaps in advance of our own. The great English writers on 
political economy at the present day are mostly on one side, and 
advocating the cause of free trade and free labor with powerful 
effect. Tlieir influence is already felt on the government, which, 
with its mountain of debt, is taking rapid strides in relieving the 
people from the effects of former vicious and oppressive legisla- 
tion. What would be thought, if at no distant day, the people 
should declare they would no longer be taxed for the folly of their 
forefathers, and should cancel the public debt at a single blow. 
American repudiation would sink to a star of small magnitude. 
It is already agitated. 

It may be necessary for us as a nation to interpose for self-pro- 
tection, and sustain our own tariff against similar restrictions of 
other nations ; it would not do to open our ports to freedom of 
trade, while other nations are restrictive ; but our policy and in- 
terest will combine to meet the advances of this progressive spirit 
of the age and help it onward. It is the cause of humanity, of 
universal mental and moral advancement — the cause of the peo- 
ple. Another prominent feature in the present position of inter- 
national affairs is the indisposition for war. England, with all 
her pride and might, cherishes and advocates peace. She met and 
answered all our democratic bluster on the Oregon question with 
dignity and magnanimity. Cotton-bags and cotton-spindles may 
have aided in " keeping "the peace," but peace was preserved. We 
trust the prevailing sentiment of the British nation on war is, to 
do nothing, and do it well. Were England and America united 
in a geneiuus spirit of improvement, they might govern the world ; 
and their interests have far more points of mutual attraction than 
repulsion. 

We must sum up the leading objects aimed at in this rambling 
essay in a few definite observations. 

As soon as the masses, the workingmen, see their true interests 
clearly, they will resolve : 1. That capital shall sustain the bur- 
dens of the state, and labor go untaxed ; 2. That provision shall 
be made for a higher standard of universal moral and mental cul- 
ture (education), at the expense of property ; 3. That there shall 
be no more international wars to grind the people between the 

9 



96 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



upper and nether millstone — that the principles of the New Testa- 
ment shall be the umpire on this subject ; 4. That in national and 
state legislation prevention shall be substituted for cure ; that in- 
quiry be made whether the money now expended on jails, and 
penitentiaries, and gibbets, and sheriffs, and almshouses, can not 
be otherwise appropriated for accomplishing the same end. l 



THE TARIFFS OF 1842 AND 1846. 

The following comparison of the tariffs — that of 1842 (whig), 
and the present, 1846 (democratic) — will present the whole sub- 
ject in a nutshell. By the former, the duties were generally spe- 
cific, that is, so much pen yard, number, foot, pound, gallon, &c. ; 
by the latter, ad valorem, or so much per cent, on the value. 
[The term "ad valorem" means, on or according to the value. 
The true value of the goods in the country where they are made 
is taken, to this is to be added " all costs and charges," according 
to customhouse valuations ; and on this amount or value a certain 
per cent, is to be paid as duty. For example, a bale of calicoes 
comes from England, worth there, 1,200 yards, at 7 cts. per yard, 
$84 ; costs and charges, $6 ; amount, $90. The duty on calicoes 
is 25 per cent, ad valorem ; therefore, $22.50 is the amount of 
tariff duty to be paid on the bale. A pipe of brandy is worth in 
France $100 ; the costs and charges are $4 : the duty is 100 per 
cent, ad valorem ; therefore, it must pay $104. 

We insert a list embracing all the goods of general interest, 
with the duties according to both tariffs, both being reduced to 
the ad-valorem scale. 

Comparative Table of the Tariffs of 1842 and 1846. 



Articles. 



Wool, coarse - - - 

all others - - - 

manufactures of 

Carpets, Wilton - - 

treble ingrain - 

Clothing", made - - 

Cotton 

manufactures of 
do. better quality- 
Silk manufactures of 
sewing, &c. - - 
Cables and cordage - 
Iron, bars rolled - - 
not rolled - - 

Pig 

vessels of, cast - 
nailrods, &c. - 



Tariff 


Tariff 


of 1842. 


of 1846. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


5 


30 


40 


30 


40 


30 


23.7 


30 


73 


30 


50 


30 


61 


Free. 


30 


25 


43 


25 


24.25 


25 


38 


30 


120 


25 


75 


30 


35.5 


30 


49 


30 


51 


30 


99 


30 



Articles. 



Iron, cables - - - 
cut nails, &c. - 
wrought nails - 

Cutlery 

Lead - - - - - 

Glass, cut (average) - 
plain, moulded, 
or pressed - - 
tumblers - - - 
window, crown 
Coal, mineral - - - 
China, porcelain, &c. 
Leather, tanned - - 
Boots & shoes, men's 
women and chil- 
dren's - - - 



Tariff 


Tariff 


of 1842. 


ofl846. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


87 


30 


39 


30 


58.25 


30 


30 


30 


*3 cts. 


20 


per lb. 




72 


40 


26 


30 


137 


30 


39 


20 


69 


30 


30 


30 


17 


20 


30 


30 


44 


30 



r Equivalent to a prohibition. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



97 



Comparative Table, %c— Continued. 





Tariff 


Tariff 




Tariff 


Tariff 


Articles. 


of 1842. 


of 1846. 


Articles. 


of 1842. 


011846. 




per ct. 
5 


per ct. 




per ct. 


per ct. 


Furs, undressed - - 


10 


Sperm or wax candl's 


16 


20 


Hats, of far, caps, &e. 


35 


30 


Tallow candles - - 


38 


10 


q£ wool - - - 


18 cts. 


20 


Salt 


76.75 


20 




each. 




Beef and Pork - - 


51 


20 


Feathers, for beds - 


25 


25 


Cheese 


69 


30 


Clocks 


25 


15 


Butter 


63 


20 


Jewelry - - - - 


20 


30 


Wheat 


27 


20 


Mahogany, manf s of 


30 


40 


Indian Com - - - 


26 


20 


Boards and lumber - 


30 


20 


Potatoes -.-- 


20 cts. 


20 


Brushes and brooms 


30 


30 




112 lbs 




Dolls and Toys - - 


30 


30 


Brandy 


134 


100 


Paper, bank-note and 






Other distilled spirits 


143 


100 


writing (average) - 


56 


30 


Wine, Madeira - - 


5.25 


40 


Playing cards - - 


125 


30 


Canary - - - 


158 


40 


f 


21 cts. 


1 


Claret - - - - 


45 


40 


Sugar, raw - - J 


per lb. 


1 30 


Sicily Madeira - 


50 


40 


brown- • - j 


or 62$ 


37 other wines, vary- 






I 


per ct. 


J 


ing from --- - 


8 to 73 


40 


clarified - - - 


105 


30 


Cordials, &c. - - - 


41 


100 


refined, white - 


92 


30 


Cigars, &c. - - - 


28 


40 


Molasses - - - - 


29 


30 


Fruit from West In- 






Sweetmeats, &c. - - 


25 


40 


dies in bulk - - 


Free. 


20 


Pimento - - - - 


120 


40 


Tea and coffee - - 


Free. 


Free. 



The following are all the articles exempt from duty by the tariff of 1846 : 
Animals for breed; bullion ; cabinets and collections of curiosities ; coffee and 
tea in American vessels ; coins, gold, silver, and copper ; cotton ; garden seeds ; 
goods, wares, and merchandise of the United States, exported and brought 
back in the same condition; guano; household effects of persons coming from 
abroad for their own use; models of inventions; oils of American fisheries; 
paintings, &c, of American artists, not objects of merchandise ; specimens of 
natural science ; trees, bulbs, plants, &c. ; wearing apparel, books, tools, instru- 
ments, &c, of persons arriving in the United States, for use, and not for sale. 



The foregoing table presents many points for reflection, but we will not an- 
ticipate those which the reader will make for himself. The two tariffs taken 
together, although differing very widely on some articles, do not disagree so 
much in the aggregate as we expected. One thing is evident, the new tariff 
is not made to protect American manufactures or productions. 

The message or report of Mr. Secretary W alker in presenting the new 
tariff is an able paper, and takes a comprehensive view of commercial and in- 
ternational affairs. But let us examine a little. Salt, he says, is a necessary 
of life, and should be exempt from duty. [And yet it is taxed in the new tariff.] 
Very true. (Under the tariff of 1842, the duty on salt was 8 cents per bushel, 
while its cost in Turk's island was about 5 or 6 cents!) But we always sup- 
posed that grains, provisions, and cheap clothing, were necessaries of life, as 
well as salt. The new tariff taxes beef, and pork, and butter, and corn, and 
potatoes, and pumpkins, 20 per cent. ; and clothing, cotton, and wool, and hats, 
and shoes, still higher. It may be said, perhaps, our own productions require 
a moderate protection ; but then, why tax potatoes, and [propose to] exempt 
$alt, as the former article is much better able to protect itself than the latter ? 



98 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

" The world is governed too much," is perhaps a favorite maxim of democracy 
(certainly a very true one rightly considered), but even democracy has some- 
thing yet to learn, to be consistent with itself. 

We have a higher aim than to take either side in the dispute about the de- 
tails of this or that tariff, viz. : To induce intelligent men to think seriously, 
whether the grinding bondage of all taxation is not entirely the consequence 
of human folly; and whether there is no hope of relief or redemption from the 
miseries of war, ignorance, and crime. 



WAGES. 

While three fourths of the human family are destined (not 
doomed or cursed, for the necessity to labor is a wise provision of 
Divine Providence in the present state of man) to manual toil ; and 
while all the riches of the world are the product of labor, the price 
of that labor, that is, wages, becomes a subject of universal inter- 
est. We can not enter into any discussion of the principles which 
govern it ; our object at present being merely to give a general 
view of prices paid in different employments in this and other 
countries. It may, however, be observed that, when left to regu- 
late itself, labor is always governed by the law of demand and 
supply, as much as the price of flour and bacon. 

It should be remembered, in taking a comprehensive view of 
this subject, that the price paid for labor is of itself no proof 
that laborers in one country are better off than those in another. 
The price of provisions, rents, and taxes, and the value of money, 
must always be taken into the account. The true condition of 
the laborer is not to be judged so much by the amount of the 
money he receives, as by the quantity of the necessaries of life 
which that money will purchase. If rents and provisions are so 
much cheaper in Europe as to balance the higher rate of wages in 
America, the laborer is no better off, so far as living is concerned, 
in coming from the former to the latter country. But probably 
the greatest advantage which the American has over the foreign 
laborer, arises from the greater value of money. In densely-pop- 
ulated countries interest is at a very low rate, and the facilities 
for profitable investment but few ; whereas the boundless field of 
enterprise in this new country, and the high rates of interest, give 
even the smallest capital ready chances for the purchase of prop- 
erty, or speculation, on advantageous terms. — It may be assumed 
as a rule, almost without an exception, that where the rate of la- 
bor is low, the cost of living (laborers' living) is cheap. 



POLITICAL ECONOMY* 



99 



Comparative rates of Wages in England, France, and the Uni- 
ted States, 



Day-laborer 

Carpenter 

Mason 

Farm hand, per month 

Servant-maids, per week . . . 

Machinists, per day 

Mule-spinners, cotton 

Mule-spinners, woollen 

Weavers, hand-loom 

Women, in cotton mills, 

week 

Women, in woollen mills, 



per 



do. 



England. 




1.96 
1.96 



France. 



$0.37 to $0.40 

55 to 75 

60 to 80 

40frs. to 6.00 



80 to 90 
40 to 50 
37 to 50 



U. States. 



$1.00* 
1.45 
1.62 
9.00 
1.25 
1.62 
1.25 
1.08 
90 

2.50 
2.50 



In Holland, a day-laborer earns about 35 cents ; carpenters and masons, 60 
cents ; ship carpenters, 80 cents. 



Wages (per week) in England and Scotland, when trade is " brisk" 

1. English Cotton Factories. — Spinners, men, $4.80 to $6 ; spinners, women, 
$2.40 to $3.60 ; carders, men, $3.50 to $4 ■ carders, girls, $2.16 to $2.28 ; chil- 
dren, $1.40 to $1.68; weavers, men, $3.12 to $4.06; dressers, men, $6.72 to 
$7.20 ; winders and warpers, $1.92 to $2.64 ; mechanics, $5.75 to $6.25. 

2. English Mechanics.— Machine-makers, $6.20 to $7.20 ; iron-founders, $6.70 
to $7.2&; tailors, $4.30 to $4.80 ; shoemakers, $3.60 to $4.32 ; whitesmiths, $5.28 
to $5.76 ; carpenters, $4.80 to $6 ; bricklayers, $4.08 to $4.80. 

In Sheffield, celebrated for iron and hardware manufactures, the wages of 
workmen vary from $6 to $8.50 per week. 

3. Scotland — Glasgow. — Bootmakers, $3.84 to $5 ; bookbinders, $4.80 to 
$5.75 ; chain and anchor makers, $6 to $7.20 ; hatters, $8.40 to $10.80 ; brick- 
layers, $4.80 to $5.50 ; tailors, $3.60 to $4.80 ; cotton-spinners, $3.84 to $5.75 ; 
weavers, $1.68 to $2.16; carpet-weavers, $3.60 to $4. 

j£>gp In English factories, operatives work but 69 hours per week; in Low- 
ell, Mass., 74 hours. 



Manufacturing Labor in the United States, 

The average pay of male operatives in Lowell is from 80 to 88 
cents per day, clear of board ; of females, about $2 per week, 
while some can earn $3 or $4. 

In the Stark mills, Manchester, New Hampshire, the average 
wages of girls, over board, was $1.46 per week in 1843 ; and 
$1.93, in 184(3. 

Labor in factories is subject tp constant fluctuations, being af- 

* These sums probably refer to daily labor in cities ; the sum is too large for 

the average of agricultural labor. 

° ° 9* 



100 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



fected by the change of tariffs and fluctuations in the prices of 
raw materials and goods. 

At the Amoskeag mills, the average rates were, in 1842, for 
carding, $1.51 ; spinning, $1.33 ; weaving, $1.61 ; dressing, $2.20 ; 
and in 1846, for carding-, $1.84 ; spinning, $1.61 ; weaving, $2.66 ; 
dressing, $2.78. 



Wages in the United States — Mechanical and Agricultural. 

We have received from official and authentic sources the price 
of wages in many of the states and cities of the Union, from which, 
and from an abstract of the last patent-office report, the following 
table is compiled. In a large state, as New York, wages will 
vary considerably in different sections ; we have endeavored to 
state the average. In large cities, throughout the United States, 
good laborers command, on an average, $1 per day. 



Maine, New Hamp- C mechanics 

shire, and Vermont, ( laborers - 

Massachusetts, R. C mechanics 

[sland, and Conn., ( laborers - 



New York. 



New Jersey 



mechanics - - 
laborers - - - 

mechanics - - 
laborers - - - 

Pennsylvania, and ( mechanics - - 
Ihio, ( laborers - - - 

Maryland and Dis- C mechanics - - 
met of Columbia, ( laborers (white), 

/-mechanics (white) $1 to $1.50 

Virginia, North and j mechanics (col'd), $1 
South Carolina, Geo., ! 

Kentucky and Ten- • laborers ( white), 50 cts. 

nesee,* J laborers (col'd), 25 to 40 



Per day. 
$1 

62 cts. 

$1.25 
75 

75 to 87 

50 
$1 to $1.25 

75 cts. 
$1 

50 cts. 
$1 

50 to 75 



I 



Alabama and Mis- 
sissippi, 

Louisiana, Florida, 
and Arkansas, 

Indiana, Illinois, 
and Michigan, 

Iowa, Wisconsin, 
and Missouri, 



mechanics 
laborers - 

mechanics 
laborers - 
mechanics 
laborers - 
mechanics^, 
laborers - 



- $1.50 to $2 

25 to 50 

$1.50 to $2.50 
50 

- $1 to $1.50 

50 to 75 

- $1.50 to $2 

75 to $1 



Per month. 

...$12. 
...$26. 
...$12 to $15. 
. . . $20 to $25. 
...$10 to $12. 
...$25. 
...$12. 
...$20. 
...$10. 

...$10 % 

...$25 to $40. 

. . . 20, or $200 
per annum. 
...$10to $12. 
...$5 to $10, 



or $60 to $100 per annum. 



. . . $25 to $40. 
...$12 to $15. 

...$30 to $50. 
...$15. 
...$20 to $30. 
,..$8 to $12. 

...$10to $15. 



* We have grouped these states together as they present very similar fea- 
tures of position &iA d'sinbution of population. They all embrace lowlands 
and mout/ainous jo^ns. In the former, slaves perform nearly all the man- 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 101 

Iii all the foregoing statements, the wages are considered as 
inclusive of board. This varies more than labor, in different sec- 
tions of the country. In New England, $2 per week is a fair av- 
erage of laborers' board ; in the western states, $1. It should al- 
so be remembered that the wages here stated are those given to 
farm-hands, teamsters, boatmen, and other common laborers ; ar- 
tists, operatives in factories, miners, &c, receive more. 

During the short season of harvest, laborers will command one 
half more wages per day, than the above, in all the great agri- 
cultural districts. 

Remarks. — '• In England, the average rate of agricultural labor is nine shil- 
lings, or $1.98 per week — deduct 35 cents for cottage rent, leaves $1.63 for 
family provision. 

" In France, a laborer receives $1.04; in Prussia, 66 cents; in Germany. 
$1.02 ; in Holland and Belgium, -$1.20 ; in Italy and Austria, $1.15, per week. 

" In England the laborer can obtain for his $1.63, either 39 lbs. of bread, 
or 111 lbs. of meat [too high for laborers' meat in England] ; 1\ lbs. of butter, 
12| lbs. of cheese, or 174 lbs. of potatoes. 

" In France, $1.04 will buy 46 lbs. of bread, 13£ lbs. of meat, or 261 lbs. of 
potatoes. 

" In Prussia, 66 cents will buy 36 lbs. of bread. 16 lbs. of meat, or 8f lbs. 
of butter. 

" In Holland and Belgium, $1.20 will buy 58 lbs. of bread, 22 lbs. of beef, 
or 460 lbs. of potatoes. 

" In Italy and Austria, $1.15 cents will buy 50 lbs. of bread, 22 lbs. of beef, 
8 lbs. of butter, 8 lbs. of cheese, or 168 lbs. of potatoes." 

From this extract, we see the reason why the laboring classes of Europe 
are confined to the cheapest food. The meat is too expensive for their wages, 
and the quantities above mentioned would hardly sustain a family. The ar- 
ticles at the prices mentioned, are not consumed by them. Inferior and cheap- 
er qualities of meat are occasionally used, but their common food consists of 
barley or rye bread, very coarse, potatoes and other roots, and the coarse 
vegetables, and some milk and cheese. In Italy, and parts of France and 
Austria, olive oil is within reach of the laboring class, and chestnuts are ex- 
tensively used as food. In France, Germany, and Austria, also Spain and 
Portugal, wine is so common and cheap, that an inferior quality is much used 
by the common people, as cider is used in our northern states. 

Our tables of wages enable us to place our own laboring popu- 
lation in contrast with the European. And here there is a stri- 
king difference between our own states — old and new. The neces- 
saries of life are nearly twice as expensive in New England as 
they are in the west, while the price of labor is nearly the same. 
For example : in Massachusetts, $3 (say a week's wages), will 
buy a half-barrel of flour, or 4 bushels of corn, or 6 bushels of 
potatoes, or 50 lbs. of beef or pork. In Indiana, or Missouri, 

ual labor ; in the latter, or highlands, there are comparatively few slaves, and 
white labor predominates. Hence the reason for designating the wages of 
each. 

In the states further southwest, labor is nearly all performed by slaves ; but 
is more valuable because more productive, arising from greater fertility of 



102 POLITICAL ECONOMY, 

$2.50 (a week's wages) will buy a barrel of flour, or 12 bushels 
of corn or potatoes, or 100 lbs. of beef or pork. 

But the whole comparison between the American and Europe- 
an laborer is unfair, having very few points of resemblance. The 
latter is limited to a bare subsistence. If there is any cheerful- 
ness about his home it must arise from some other source than 
plenty of physical enjoyments. He will never be in danger of 
incurring the guilt of Sodom on account of " fulness of bread." 

The American laborer, if frugal and temperate, may have his 
own lot and house, or cottage, and good furniture in it — by the 
aid of his cow, his garden, and female industry and good manage- 
ment, he may save his wages entire. Just such an humble begin- 
ning had many of our wealthy farmers and business men, some of 
our professional men and eminent statesmen — (and the number 
of such will be increased just in proportion to the moral and men- 
tal elevation of humble females — educated to be the mothers of 
honest men and statesmen. Female education is the correct 
standard everywhere of judging the true state and progress of na- 
tions and men.) The American laborer is not overshadowed and 
oppressed by a law of primogeniture — nor (yet) ground (himself) 
to the dust by taxation — nor made a slave (worst of all) to eccle- 
siastical exactions. In some countries of Europe, it is stated 
that not less than seventy days are kept as saint days, which is so 
much lost time to the poverty-stricken laborer. 



BANKS. 



" The greatest of all regulators (in banking) is perfect liberty of action, se- 
curing unlimited competition." — Hunt's Magazine. 

" The trade in money requires no more law than the trade in shoes." — lb. 

" One of the great evils of banks is the constant expansion and contraction 
of the currency ; and this evil is augmented by the deposite of the revenue 
with banks, whether state or national." — Mr. Secretary Walker's Report. 

The last part of the above extract is a precious confession. 
Our democratic legislators pulled down and nullified all " United 
States" banks, as dangerous institutions in a free government, but 
they are sorely puzzled for a substitute ; as everybody knows 
there must be some mode or plan of collecting and disbursing the 
finances. " Deposite banks" were found to make money plenty 
or scarce, easy or difficult to obtain, in their neighborhoods, ac- 
cording as government had the power or disposition to draw out, 
or leave its funds in their custody: and the secretary of the treas- 
ury acknowledges this to be an "augmented" evil. Now the 
"independent treasury" is revived; and a shrewd democratic 
editor ridicules the system of collecting specie in treasuries and 
then transporting it from place to place (instead of depositing it, 
and using bills of exchange for currency) by comparing it with 



POLITICAL ECONOMY. 103 

the plan of shipping water from New York to the gulf of Mexi- 
co, to deepen their harbors with — this editor very sagely judging 
that it would be more economical to use their own water ; and to 
use bills of exchange for currency, instead of carting and shipping 
the precious metals from north to south, and back again. 

Banking is another " great question" in political economy. 
With regard to its utility or mischievousness, we think the gen- 
eral views of Pope on government are applicable : — 

" The government that's best administered is best." 
Banks are of modern origin ; and that they have had a large in- 
fluence since their establishment, in promoting general industry, 
in extending commerce and civilization, encreasing the circulating 
medium, and in equalizing property, can not be questioned. And, 
indeed, paper-money, "bank rags," so called, has played a most 
important part in the greatest scenes of our own times ; dismem- 
bering and overturning empires. It was the efficient agent in 
effecting both the American and the French revolution — and in 
the hands of democrats too. It is with a bad grace democracy 
contemns the principle of bank paper ; in times of grea,t extremity 
it is the most formidable engine of power which the people can 
use against their oppressors. 

On the other hand, it can not be denied that banking is liable 
to the greatest abuses, and is a ready instrument in the hands of 
knaves and corporations, of inflicting great injury upon society, 
and distress upon individuals. The bank of England is a "mon- 
ster" of power, such as the world never saw. The sword of Al- 
exander or of Caesar was a mere plaything in comparison. It is 
the agent of government in managing the finances of England, and 
in doing this its influence is felt everywhere. The whole com- 
mercial world is at its feet. It controls the price of flour in New 
York, of cotton in New Orleans, of tea in Canton, of wool in 
Australia, and of gold in South America. As a regulator of trade 
and currency, its power is omnipotent for good or evil. The 
principal guaranty that its power will be exerted not for evil, 
is in the fact that England situated on a pinnacle of wealth and 
power, is dependent upon the prosperity of general commerce for 
her own safety and welfare. She must keep her own wealth and 
industry actively employed or sink herself. To do this, it is im- 
portant to promote trade and industry among foreign nations. 
Hence any other than a liberal policy on the part of the bank, 
looking to the general welfare of trade throughout the world, 
would be suicidal for England : and hence, also, the great revo- 
lution in modern times and especially in England, in favor of free 
trade.* 

* Among all the discoveries and inventions of the last forty years, there is 
nothing more remarkable than the revolution of sentiment on this great prin- 
ciple of political economy. The man who wished himself the only inhabitant 



104 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

It is unfortunate, to say the least, that in our country, at pres- 
ent, government and the interests of business are at variance. 
Government has brought everything connected with itself to the 
specie standard ; while it is most manifest that in a new country 
like ours, with so large a public domain to be cultivated, and a 
boundless field of enterprise and speculation, there is not, can not, 
be gold and silver enough for the demands of legitimate business ; 
besides the objection arising from its inconvenience in large trans- 
actions, as currency. Bank currency has therefore usurped the 
place of gold and silver in business, and will probably continue to 
predominate as long as the causes which produce the demand for 
it shall continue to operate. But it is obviously an act of simple 
mutual justice, that the bank-note holder should be protected from 
loss under this paper currency. Paper should never be anything 
more than the representative of coin ; and where the latter does 
not exist, to issue the former should be held a fraud. If the bank 
holds my note, the law makes my property and my indorser's re- 
sponsible for its payment ; but if the bank becomes my debtor, by 
my holding its bills when- it stops payment, the stockholders hide 
themselves behind the act of incorporation, and become irrespon- 
sible. This is not "■ equal and exact justice to all men," but tends 
to the worst oppression by giving to an association powers, and 
withholding responsibilities, beyond those of individuals. Place 
the community out of the reach of loss from a paper currency, and 
then let banks become as plenty as barbers' shops. 

There are systems in operation in two countries which appear 
to be based on liberal principles, and at the same time afford com- 
plete security to the public. 

The first is the Scotch system. The excellence of this is its 
plan of exchanges. A general exchange of bank-notes of all the 
banks takes place in Edinburgh twice a week : each clerk receiv- 
ing from all the others the notes on his bank, and giving to each 
all he holds of theirs. After the exchange a balance is struck, 
and each clerk hands to a presiding officer his statement. Balan- 
ces must be promptly paid. Under such a system over-issues be- 
come impracticable. The promises of the banks circulate freely, 

of the world, that he might monopolize all the profits of tavern-keeping, repre- 
sented the old system exactly. Even so late as near the close of the last cen- 
tury, there were severe laws in England against exporting machinery, or the 
emigration of inventors. Samuel Siater, who commenced the spinning of cot- 
ton in this country by machinery, left England bj^ stealth, with some knowl- 
edge of the operation of the machinery in /lis head, for he could not get away 
with even a drawing of it in his pocket, and was long on the point of failure, 
before he could arrange his machinery for operation. Now, the modern doc- 
trine is, the more extensive the knowledge of any invention or improvement 
is spread, the more industry, more enterprise, more commerce, more wealth, 
will follow. A man can never get rich in trading with paupers, aud it is seen 
that in proportion to the facilities for creating wealth in any country, will the 
chances for a profitable commerce with it be multiplied. 



FOLITICAL ECONOMY. 105 

because the ability to perform the promise is tested twice a week 
by these exchanges. Furthermore every stockholder's property 
is liable to the last shilling for the debts of the bank ; and 
every facility is furnished by law for enabling the note-holders 
and creditors of the bank to attach the property of the stockhold- 
ers, and make it available for its debts. On these principles the 
stability and success of Scotch banking has been unexampled, and 
unaffected by the fluctuations of trade and speculation. 

The other system is in Rhode Island. With a population of 
about 100,000, this state has sixty-five banks, with capitals from 
$20,000 to $500,000, and the aggregate capital $10,000,000. 
Every village has its shoe-shop, its smith's shop, and its money- 
shop. Workingmen deposite their little savings in the bank, 
buying first one share and then another, until at length they are 
enabled to buy a little farm, or open a shop, or commence manu- 
facturing. The bank derives sufficient profit to pay its expenses 
and no more, because when the trade in money is free, the quan- 
tity of idle capital in the form of money will always be small, as 
also will be the quantity of circulation required. In Rhode 
Island, as in Scotland, stockholders are liable for the debts of the 
banks — as they should be everywhere. 

Practically, a poor man should shun banks (as a borrower) as he 
would the plague. Pay-day will come as certain as a death-bed, 
whether he is ready for it or not. And if he fails to meet his " prom- 
ise to pay," his money character is ruined. Corporations have no 
souls, and show no pity. Indeed, the principle on which banks 
are founded demands the most rigid fulfilment of engagements. 
No leniency is therefore the only rule by which they can be sus- 
tained in dealing with the public. The borrower is always the 
servant of the lender, and there is but little slavery in the world 
more galling than that of the debtor. Bank facilities are very 
convenient for merchants and business men who have plenty of 
moveable capital, but to^iechanics dependent upon their labor, 
and farmers whose property is fixed and immoveable, they fre- 
quently prove to be but temptations to — bankruptcy and ruin. 

Number of banks in the United States, in 1846, 695 ; capi- 
tal, $230,070,622 ; loans and discounts, $310,282,945 : specie, 
$35,132,516 ; circulation, $105,519,766. 

Balance of Trade. — This term is used in commerce to express the difference 
between the value of exports and imports. The balance is said to be favora- 
ble when the value of the exports exceeds that of the imports, and unfavora- 
ble when otherwise. This theory is now considered fallacious by mercantile 
men, as appears evident from the following common sense reasoning and 
facts : — 

" There can be no motive to export any species of produce, unless that 
which it was intended to import in its stead were of greater value. No mer- 
chant will ever export, but with the view of importing something more valu- 
able in return. And so far from an excess of exports over imports being any 
criterion of an advantageous commerce, it is directly the reverse; and the 



106 



TOLITICAL ECONOMY. 



truth is, notwithstanding all thnt hits been said and written to the contrary, 
that unless the value of the imports exceeds that, of the exports, foreign trade 
can not be carried on. Were this not the case, merchants would lose on every 
transaction with foreigners, and the trade with them would be necessarily 
abandoned." 

"It is true," says Mr. Pitkin, "that the real gam of the Uni'ed States 
has been nearly in proportion as their imports have exceeded their export-. 
Take an example : In 1811, flour sold in the United States at. $9£ per bar el ; 
in Spain, for $15. The value of a cargo of 5,000 barrels was, therefore, in the 
United States, $47,500, and in Spain, $75,000. The Americau merchant 
would have $27,500 more than the flour cost him. But the transaction does 
not stop here. The $75,000 is vested in some species of Spanish or European 
goods, suitable for the American market, so that the return cargo may be 
worth $100,000 ; in that case the American merchant will have imported 
$52,000 worth more of goods than he exported. — All rich nations have been 
commercial." 



Table, showing the Average Quantity of Nutritive Matter 
1,000 parts of Various Articles of Food. 



Blood 215 

Beef 260 

Veal 250 

Mutton ------ 290 

Pork 240 

Brain 200 

Chicken 270 

Cod 210 

Haddock 180 

Bones 510 

Milk - - - - r - - 72 
White of egg - - - - 140 

Wheat 950 

Indian corn - - - - 

Rice 880 

Barley 920 

Bye ------- 792 

Oats 742 



Potatoes - ■ 
Carrots - ■ 
Turnips - ■ 
Cabbage - 
Beets - - 
Strawberries 
Pears - - • 
Apples - - 
Gooseberries 
Cherries - 
Plums - - 
Apricots - 
Peaches - 
Grapes - - 
Melon# - 
Cucumber - 
Tamarind - 
Almonds - 



260 

98 



73 
148 
100 
160 

170 
190 
250 
290 
260 
200 
270 
30 
25 
310 
650 



RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 107 



CHAPTER VII. 

MORAL AND RELIGIOUS DEPARTMENT— EDUCATION. 

RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 

The extension of religious missions constitutes the great moral 
feature of the age. For nearly three hundred years since the Ref- 
ormation, the church of Rome manifested a much greater zeal in 
missionary enterprise than the reformed churches. That wonder- 
ful man, Ignatius Loyola, the founder of the order of the Jesuits, 
rave a new impulse to catholic missions, which is felt at this day, 
ia the four quarters of the globe, which aimed, and still aims, at 
the conversion of the world to the faith of Rome. 

The small society of the Moravians, have been eminent for 
their zeal and self-denying labors, more than one hundred years. 
Several societies were formed in Great Britain near the close of 
the last century, for sending the gospel to heathen nations; but it 
was not till within the last twenty-five years, that the subject has 
become one of general interest to American and European protcs- 
tants. The American board (congregational and presbyterian) 
lor fjreign missions, was formed in 1811 — receipts for that year, 
$999.52 — the American baptist board in 1S14— receipts, 81,239 — 
the methodist missionary society in 1820, and several others since. 
From these small beginnings, the spirit of missionary enterprise 
has extended to nearly all denominations, and increased, until at 
present, the amount of contributions to the various societies in 
the United States, exceeds one and a half millions of dollars an- 
nually. (The amount of British contributions is more than double, 
or three millions, which added to that contributed to other Euro- 
pean societies, will probably amount to five millions, as the sum 
contributed for missionary and benevolent purposes, by protestant 
churches, annually.) This amounts chiefly contributed in small 
sums by the multitude of our church-going population. The 
mighty Mississippi which pours such a flood of waters into the 
ocean, is fed by thousands of unseen rills and springs in the dis- 
tant mountains; from such unknown and innumerable sources, 
are contributed the small sums which make up so large an aggre- 
gate of Christian benevolence. It is a large sum to be raised in 
a new enterprise ; it is small in view of the wealth of Christians, 
and of the moral destitution and degradation of the heathen. 
Terhaps there are few readers of these pages, but have aided in 
this work of "doing good to others." If not, let them begin. 

10 



108 RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 

There is no investment of "gold that perisheth," that will pay a 
larger income. 

With such a feeling in favor of missions so generally diffused, 
it was judged that in a work designed for popular reference and 
instruction, a table giving the annual receipts of the different so- 
cieties could not be otherwise than acceptable. 

There is abundant evidence that protestant missions have, pro- 
duced great good. Naval officers and travellers, have often tes- 
tified to the self-denying labors, the privations, the frugal living, 
and success of missionaries. Churches have been formed from con- 
verted heathen, which now contribute for the support of other 
missions. The annual increase in missionary contributions, also 
evinces that the spirit of true benevolence is increasing at home ; 
while to every humane disposition, the thought must be gratify- 
ing, that for every dollar contributed for the religious instruction 
of the world, there is a positive influence exerted toward coun- 
teracting the popular sentiment that men and nations can only be 
controlled by the force of gunpowder. Under the distractions of 
war and tumult, the world has groaned near six thousand years. 
A great effort is now being made to meliorate the condition of 
men, by spreading the knowledge of the Bible. 

Another happy result of the present missionary enterprise in our 
own country, is its tendency to make a brotherhood of Christians. 
The intolerance and persecutions of the dominant sects in our early 
history, cherished a feeling of bitterness among professors of dif- 
ferent communions, down to a late period, but missionary zeal 
has had the happy effect, in a great measure, of removing preju- 
dices, which formerly led them to regard each other as persecutors, 
schismatics, and fanatics. Missionaries of various sects co-operate 
in the same field abroad, and forget their sectarian differences 
while laboring to rescue men from the dominion of sin. The ev- 
idence is accumulating that this spirit is destined to pervade the 
world. Its influence is felt with increasing power every year in 
Christendom and pagandom. It will yet reach and overcome the 
exclusiveness of Romanism, and the little less exclusive spirit of 
modern European Lutheranism. All over Europe the worship 
of God is regulated by government, and " according to law," 
while in our own country the utmost toleration prevails. These 
antagonistic principles have already come into collision wherever 
there is freedom of the press and of speech, and this warfare of 
opinions will in another age, if not in this, become one of deep, 
perhaps fearful interest. It is an important fact, which the lover 
of truth of whatever name will rejoice in, that in the providence 
of God, this great and free country is to be the principal theatre 
of operations, and the arbiter in this struggle, affording a fair and 
open field for the intellectual and moral strife. 

The missionary spirit is accelerating the progress of this strife 



RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 109 

of opinions. The zeal and success of protectant missions have al- 
ready aroused the slumbering energies of the Roman church, and 
the two religious systems must come into collision in every quar- 
ter of the globe. The followers of Wesley and Calvin are destined 
to encounter everywhere the disciple of Loyola. Already has the 
latter begun to follow the former around the world, to counteract 
their heresies ; and in the true spirit of his creed, called on the 
civil government to aid him. This is well. It is the direct col- 
lision of the old and new systems— of tradition with revelation. 
The king of the French may force the islanders of the Pacific to 
adopt the Romish faith ; but that king's successors will need more 
power than he possesses, to defend their own realm from the in- 
vasion of free discussion. Cannon-balls can not arrest the spirit 
of inquiry. Other agencies than the power of the sword and the 
bulls of the Vatican will, in future, exert an influence in deciding 
moral and religious questions. 

In clinging to Divine Revelation with ud wavering faith, the 
enthusiast may not be very far m advance of the age who expects, . 
before the close of the century, to see, not only France and Ger- 
many, but Spain and Italy, divided into Methodist circuits, pio- 
neering the way for the diffusion of Bible religion, and the con- 
version of the priesthood to a better faith. 

The power of England has opened nearly all the Eastern world 
to the free admission of the gospel, while at the same time she 
dare not carry her own test and tythe acts into her colonies and 
tributary states — decisive evidence of the progress of enlightened 
opinion. Wherever she sets the foot of her power — though it 
may be from motives of ambition or aggrandizement — there may 
the Bible be circulated, and its truths inculcated and accepted, 
without human interference. To the position of England, the 
world is indebted chiefly for the facilities and freedom of commu- 
nicating enlightened truth. With a proud and stern monarchy 
and an oppressive ecclesiastical establishment at home, she is 
practically inculcating the principles of free government and reli- 
gious toleration in all quarters of the earth. Thus it is, the wis- 
dom of God is apparent in overruling the counsels of worldly 
men. 

In another aspect the state of the world with respect to the dif- 
fusion of knowledge is not less interesting. The power of Mo- 
hammedanism is palsied, and scarcely able anywhere to sustain 
its own weight. So far from being able to propagate its doctrines 
by force as inculcated by its founder, its entire downfall is only 
prevented by the mutual jealousy of powerful neighbors. He 
who believes that the maxim, " Truth is great and will prevail," 
is applicable to the Bible, must be satisfied with a very low stand- 
ard of Christian character in the present age, if he does not labor 
for its universal diffusion. 



119 RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 

The writer can not leave the subject without an appeal to the 
females of America in behalf of their sex among Mohammedan 
and pagan nations. No doubt their sympathies have largely aided 
in obtaining the contributions stated in the table ; but their exer- 
tions and offerings would be increased a hundredfold, could they 
survey in their full extent, the ignorance, and degradation, and 
mental and moral slavery, of females in other lands. The wretch- 
edness and misery of heathenism can not half be told — and yet 
the heaviest burden falls to the lot of woman. In all countries 
not Christianized, woman is the slave of man, of superstition, or 
of vice ; not unfrequently of all three. Let the American mother 
read the two following extracts, and after contrasting the picture 
presented with that around her own society and fireside, ask her- 
self whether she has done "what she could" for the redemption 
of her own sex, who, naturally possessing the same sympathies, 
affections, and emotions, with herself, are groping in the lowest 
depths of human ignorance and debasement : — 

" On Saturday evening the woman arrives at the camping place 
[the scene is among the western Indians], with tent-cover of 
dressed skin and household apparatus, weighing perhaps one hun- 
dred pounds or more, which she has carried perhaps five or ten 
miles. By the time she can procure poles and fuel for the night, 
and stretch her tent, it is dark. Sabbath morning comes, and her 
husband's moccasins are to be mended — perhaps her own and her 
children's also ; and she has no wood prepared, and must obtain 
some. Perhaps they have no food ; her husband, therefore, goes 
in search of game, and if successful, he brings it to the tent, and 
tells her to dress it. Perhaps he thinks game is scarce in that 
neighborhood, and he tells her to have her tent stretched before 
sunset, near some river or lake eight or ten miles distant, in the 
neighborhood where he is going to hunt. When several families 
are in the same company, the men assemble every evening to de- 
termine what movement they are to make the next day ; and 
when this has been determined, wo to the woman who neglects 
to pitch her tent at the place appointed. She runs some risk of 
being scalped by the enemy, and she may expect a severe beating 
from her husband." — Missionary Herald. 

" Wives are purchased and looked upon as property in most 
parts of the group [Fejee islands, Pacific ocean] ; the husband has 
an entire right to the person of his wife, whom he may even kill 
and eat, if he feels so disposed. Wives are faithful to their hus- 
bands rather from fear than from affection. If detected in infidel- 
ity, the woman is not unfrequently knocked on the head, or made 
a slave for life. The extent to which polygamy is carried is lim- 
ited only by the will of the man, and his means of maintaining 
his wives. The latter are almost completely slaves. The house- 
hold is under the charge of the principal wile ; if the others mis- 



RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 



Ill 



behave, they are tied up, put in irons, or flogged. Wives are often 
strangled or buried alive at the funeral of their husbands, and gen- 
erally at their own instance. It is their belief, that in this way alone 
can they reach the realms of bliss, and she who meets death with 
the greatest devotedness, will become the favorite wife in the 
abode of spirits. Seventeen of the wives of Mbithi were stran- 
gled very near the house of the missionaries, who heard their 
groans and saw the whole ceremony. They considered it a priv- 
ilege to be strangled as the wives of the great chief." — Captain 
Wilkes* Exploring Expedition. 



Religious I)e 



inations in the United States. 



Denominations. 



No. of ; No. Minis- 
j Churches ters. 



Baptists, Regular - - - 
Reformed or Campbell 
Free Will - - - - 
Others 

Methodist. Episcopal 1 " ' 

Protestant - - - - 

Wesley an - - - - 

Albright or Evangelical 

Presbyterian, Old School - 

New School - - - - 

Cumberland - - - 

Associate and others - 

Congregational, Orthodox - 

Unitarian - - - - 

Episcopalians - - - - 

Roman Catholics - - - 

Lutherans 

German Reformed - - 
Universalists - - - - - 

Christian Connexion (Uni- 
tarian Baptists - - - 
Dutch Reformed - - - - 

German Methodists - - - 
Swedeaborgians - - - - 

Mormon it es - - - - - 

Moravians - - - - - 

Friends ------ 

Jews ------- 



9,795 

2.500 

1,165 

213 



650 
2,274 
1.494 

570 

530 
1,728 

300 
1,232 

812 1 
1,232 

750 

1,094 

I 

650 
279 

42 
400 

22 
400 
150 



5,564 

1.750 

771 

170 

3,561 

1.481 

1,300 

600 

250 

1,643 

1,263 

300 

290 

1.675 

250 

1.373 

834 

501 

191 

700 

782 

271 

500 

30 

250 
24 



Communi- 
cants. 



Estinrd Popu- 
lation to each. 



722,404 

200,000 

63,372 

18,343 

651,191 

461.533 

64.313 

20,000; 

15.000 

174,020' 

120,645 

60,000 

45.500 

169,169 

30.000 

85,000 

146,300; 
75,000 
60,000 

35,600 j 
31,214 
15,000 

5,000 
58,000 

6.000 



i nattached to Religious Societies 



3,000,000 
> 1,000,000 

} 4,000,000 



1.500,000 
1,300,000 

500,000 

1,250.000 
150,000 
500,000 

1,300,000 

1,250,000 
500,000 

200.000 
200,000 



} 350,000 



3.000,000 



Population of the United States | 20,000,000 



10 



112 



RELIGIOUS MISSIONS. 



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RELIGIOUS MISCELLANY. 113 

Leading Children to God. — A mother, sitting in her parlor, overheard her 
child, whom a sister was dressing, say repeatedly, " No, I don't want to say my 
prayers, I don't want to say my prayers." 

"Mother," said the child appearing at the parlor-door. 

" Good morning, my child." 

" I am going to get my breakfast." 

" Slop a minute, I want yon to come and see me first." 

The mother laid down her work in the next chair, as the boy ran toward 
her. She took him up. He kneeled in her lap, and laid his face down upon 
her shoulder, his cheek against her ear. The mother rocked her chair slow- 
ly backward and forward — " Are you pretty well this morning ?" said she, in 
a kind and gentle tone. 

" Yes, mother, I am very well." 

" I am glad you are well. I am very well, too ; and when I waked up this 
morning and found that I was veiy well, I thanked God for taking care of me." 

"Did you ?" said the boy in a low tone — half a whisper. He paused after 
it — conscience was at its work. 

" Did you ever feel my pulse ?" asked his mother after a minute of silence, 
at the same time taking the boy down and setting him in her lap, and placing 
his fingers on her wrist. 

"No, but I have felt mine." 

" Well, don't you feel mine now— how it goes beating." 

"Yes," said the child. 

" If it should stop beating, I should die." — " Should you ?" 

" Yes, and I can't keep it beating." — " Who can ?" 

" God." A silent pause. — " You have a pulse too, which beats here in your 
bosom, in your arm, and all over you, and I can not keep it beating, nor can 
you — nobody can but God. If he should not take care of you, who could ?" 

** I dont know," said the child with a look of anxiety, and another pause en- 
sued. 

" So when I waked this morning I thought I'd ask God to take care of me 
and all of us." 

" Did you ask him to take care of me ?" 

" No." 

" Why not V 

"Because I thought 3-011 would ask him yourself." 

A long pause ensued — the deep and thoughtful expression of his countenance 
showed that his heart was reached. 

" Don't you think you had better ask him yourself ?" 

" Yes," said the boy readily. 

He kneeled again in his mother's lap, and uttered, in his simple and broken 
language, a prayer for the protection of Heaven. 



" I should like to die here," said a young lady at Niagara Falls, " heaven 
can not be far from such a scene of God's power." 



THE DYING BOY. 

It must be sweet in childhood to give back 

The spirit to its Maker, ere the heart 

Hath grown familiar with the paths of sin, 

And soon to gather up its bitter fruits. 

I knew a boy, whose infant feet had trod 

Upon the blossoms of seven Springs, 

And when the eighth came round, and called him 

To revel in its light, he turned awaf, 

And sought his chamber, to lie down and die. 



114 RELIGIOUS MISCELLANY. 

'Twas night; he summoned his accustomed friends, 
And in this wise bestowed his last requests : — 

** Mother I am dying - now ; 
There's a deep suffocation in my breast, 
As if some heavy hand my bosom pressed. 
And on my brow I feel the cold sweat stand — 

Say, mother, is this death ? 
Mother, your hand ! 

Here lay it on my wrist, 
And place the other thus, beneath my head ; 
And say, sweet mother — say when I am dead, 
Shall I be missed ? 

" Never beside your knee 
Shall I kneel down again at night, to pray ; 
Nor in the morning wake and sing the lay 

You taught to me. 

Oh, at the time of prayer, 
When you look round and see a vacant seat, 
You will not wait then for my coming feet — 

You'll miss me there. 

" Father, I'm going home, 
To that great home you spoke of, that blest land 
Where there is one bright summer, always bland, 

And tortures do not come. 

From faintness and from pain, 
From troubles, fears, you say I shall be free — 
That sickness does not enter there, and we 

Shall meet again. 

" Brother, the little spot 
I used to call my garden, where long hours 
We've stayed to watch the coming buds and flowers- 
Forget it not. 

Plant there some box or pine 
Something that lives in winter, and will be 
A verdant offering to my memory, 

And call it mine. 

" Sister, the young rose-tree, 
That all the spring has been my pleasant care, 
Just putting forth its leaves so green and fair, 

I give to thee ; 

And when its roses bloom, 
I shall be gone away — my short course run— 
And will you not bestow a single one 

Upon my tomb ? 

" Now, mother, sing the tune 
You sang last night ; I'm weary and must sleej^- 
Who was it called my name ? Nay do not weep — ■ 

You'll all come soon !" 
Morning spread over earth her rosj' wings, 
And that meek sufferer, cold and ivory pale, 
Lay on his couch asleep. The morning air 
Came through the open window, freighted with 
The fragrant odors of the lovely spring ; 
He breathed it not. The laugh of passers-by, 
Jarred like a discord in some mournful note, 
But worried not his slumber — he was dead I 



RELIGIOUS MISCELLANY. 115 

What o' clock is it ? When I was a young lad, my father one day called 
me to him that he might teach me how to know what o'clock it was. He told 
me the use of the minute finger and the hour hand, and described to me the 
figurea on the dial plate, until I was pretty perfect in my part. 

No sooner was I quite master of this additional knowledge, than I set off 
scampering to join my companions at a game of marbles : but my father called 
me back again : " Stop, Humphrey," said he, " I have something more to tell 
you." 

Back again I went, wondering what else I had got to learn ; for I thought 
I knew all about the clock, quite as well as my father did. 

" Humphrey," said he, " I have taught you to know the time of the day ; I 
must now teach you how to find out the time of your life." 

All this was strange to me, so I waited rather impatiently to hear how my 
father would explain it, for I wanted sadly to go to my marbles. 

" The Bible," says he, " describes the years of man to be three score and 
ten, or four score years. Now life is very uncertain, and you may not live a 
single day longer ; but if we divide the four score years of an old man's life 
into twelve part3, like the dial of a clock, it will allow almost seven years for 
every figure. When a boy is seven years old, then it is one o'clock of his life, 
and this is the case with you ; when you arrive at fourteen years, it will be 
two o'clock with you ; and when at twenty-one years, it will be three o'clock, 
should it please God thus to spare your life. In this manner you may thus 
know the time of your life, and looking at the clock may, perhaps, remind 
you of it. My great-grandfather, according to his calculation, died at twelve 
o'clock ; my grandfather at eleven, and my father at ten. At what hour you 
and I shall die, Humphrey, is only known to Him to whom all things are 
known." 

Never since then have I heard the inquiry, " What o'clock is it ?" nor do I 
think that I have ever looked at the face of the clock, without being reminded 
of the words of my father. 

I know not, my friends, what o'clock it is with you, but I know very well 
what time it is with myself; and that, if I mean to do anything in this world, 
which hitherto I have neglected, it is high time to set about it. The words 
of my father have given a solemnity to the dial plate of the clock, which it 
never would have possessed, in my estimation, if these words had not been ' 
spoken. Look about you, my friends, I earnestly entreat you ; now and then 
ask yourselves w T hat o'clock it is with you. 



We never expect to find a more perfect specimen of full-hearted childish 
simplicity, than the following ; nor one more indicative of a gifted mother's 
training. What mother can read it without a smile and a tear ? 

The Funeral of the Fly. * * * " There stood a thoughtful but happy child, 
three and a half years old, whose innocent feelings seemed to rise as natural- 
ly and affectionately to heaven, as to the friends he loved here. He had found 
a dead fly upon the window, and laid it upon his little fat hand, and was look- 
ing down upon it with a beautiful expression of childish hope and sorrow. 
1 Poor fly,' said he 'you shall not lie here, and burn up in the sun, if you are 
dead. I will take you, and when the bell tolls, I will carry you up in the 
burying- ground, and I will say, here is a poor fiv wants to be buried up ; and 
they will take you and put you away down in trie ground. But it won't hurt 
you, little fly : for you will go to heaven, and be very happy there, with all 
the pretty flowers, and you will never die again. And when I go to heaven, 
and my mother goes to heaven, we shall see you again, little fly.' And he 
raised his blue eyes, half filled with tears, to my face and asked, ' Won't the 
little fly go to heaven?'" 



116 EDUCATION. 

A SINGLE HINT ON EDUCATION. 

" Education ! a mere trifle, a weak power, no doubt, which the father may, without 
danger, allow his enemies to take possession of. To possess the mind with all the ad- 
vantage of the first possessor ! To write in this book of blank -paper whatever they 
will ! and to write what will last for ever ! And remember well, it will be in vain for 
you to write upon it hereafter ; what has once been written can not be effaced." 

Micheht. 

A word of preface. It is a reflection not very gratifying to human pride, 
that after an experience of thousands of years, the two great practical subjects 
of education and medicine have made so little progress toward perfection. It 
might reasonably be expected that the accumulated wisdom and experience 
of one age heaped upon another, would long ago have banished ignorance 
and pain entirely from the world. Instead of this, it is evident from one point 
of view at least, that on both these subjects mankind have been growing 
worse and worse from the earliest ages. Proof: the first physicians must 
have been practitioners of rare skill, for their patients lived hundreds, almost 
a thousand years. Probably the art of prolonging life was lost in the flood, 
for immediately after, the race began to dwindle. And with regard to educa- 
tion, there was an old schoolmaster, born so long ago that he might have con- 
versed with Noah — and probably did — to whom was accorded higher praise 
as a teacher, than to any living man before or since. — Genesis xviii., 19. This 
class of teachers (with some eminent exceptions in all ages, and an increasing 
number in our own day) has been almost as rare as " angels' visits" to man- 
kind. But still, while men have been departing in all ages from the principles 
and practice of the Old Testament, vast numbers have been obedient to an in- 
junction of the New, viz.: to " love their enemies —ignorance and sickness. 

Our object in these remarks is not to praise or disp aise systems. Whether 
Lancaster or Peztalozzi were the wiser man is not Jie question ; they were 
both philosophers in their way, and philanthropists ; but they failed at the 
outset, in not beginning at the beginning. Like the shrewd Hibernian in 
learning music, they gave the second lesson first. On the main point they 
made no progress over their predecessors. Our single purpose is to give a 
new impulse to thinking minds. If we could fasten the attention of the pub- 
lic, or of even a few energetic minds upon the great principles on which all 
right reasoning and correct practice on this subject are based, we would ex- 
ert an influence upon the next generation, greater than Napoleon exerted 
upon the last. Our exertions at present will be confined to the humble office 
of setting up a few "guide-boards'' to direct the inquirer into the path which 
w r e ourselves have partially explored. 

What is education? Certainly not merely to read, write, and cipher; to 
learn Greek or mathematics : there have been men of controlling influence in 
every age, wbo could not read a letter. Some of the Roman emperors were 
of this class, and if report be true, some distinguished men nearer our own 
times. The most comprehensive modern definition of education is, " the de- 
velopment and cultivation of all the faculties." This is correct as far as it 
goes ; but it does not cover the whole ground. The faculties will develop 
themselves, and you can't stop them without destroying life — probably not 
then. Mind, and body, and heart, will as surely become educated or devel- 
oped, as trees will grow, or water run down hill. The laws of nature are 
the same in either case, and are immutable. More strictly, to educate is to 
guide — educare, e duco — to lead from, is veiy significant of our meaning ; 
viz., to lead away from evil : or w r hat is equivalent, to guide in the right 
way. We think the wise man had this view of the subject — " Train up a 
child," &c. 

If then the body is subject to unchangeable laws — if the mind is ever on 
the alert (through the medium of the senses) to receive impressions — then 
every moment of life, and in every act and thought, education is progressing. 



EDUCATION. 117 

i. e., the faculties are being developed. Individual drops compose the ocean ; 
millions of words and thoughts and acts, make education. Every Bible that 
is published educates, and so does every novel. Every ray of light, every 
drop of rain, every oath, every smile, every prayer, every tear, every word 
and step, educates. A boy can not eat nor sleep without developing his 
physical faculties; he can not see a beggar, or a dollar, or a gilded coach ; he 
can not hear the sound of a drum or a sister's voice, without having his men- 
tal or moral faculties developed. If this is true, then two momentous facts 
are established : 1. Mere book learning is but a single item in the aggregate 
of education. 2. There is no such thing as a trifling- or indifferent thought, 
word, or action, in God's intelligent universe. To educate then, is to guide — 
to direct, or misdirect, or to leave to self-direction, a physical, rational, immor- 
tal being. 

When should education begin ? This is the all-important question : but 
with regard to the living it is too late, for education has begun. Perhaps of 
any given individual beyond, and most within the age of infancy, the scale 
is already turned, and the basis of future character unalterably formed. First 
impressions are the most lasting — decisive. Press your linger upon a fresh 
plastered wall and let it harden ; the duration of the scar will equal that of 
the wall : alike indelible is every impression made upon physical or intellec- 
tual infancy, which is not soon effaced. The gardener can give any shape of 
beauty or deformity to an infant tree, but let it develop itself two or three 
years, and no agency of man can alter the inclination it has taken. The voice 
of nature istrumpet-tongued in the physical world — " begin at the beginning." 
Are her laws fixed on every other subject, and flexible with regard to human 
training ? The lump of animated breathing clay in the mother's arms is like 
shapeless chaos at the dawn of creation : the plastic breath of Deity brought 
light, and order, and beauty, out of the latter ; the mother is in a great sense 
the deity to stamp indelibly the future character upon the embryo man. If 
she be unequal to the task of moulding aright, the future man will exhibit all 
the deformity of chaos, grown rigid and inflexible by age. The farmer may 
put off sowing his seed till September, and the delay not be fatal, for another 
spring may come when he can retrieve his error ; but he can not let his boy 
pass the spring of life in ignorance with impunity, for no second springtime 
of life ever returns. 

We have come to the point of our essay — to prove that the " one thing 
needful" in education, is a competent mother. The world will w r ake up at 
some future day to the great truth, that the destiny of the man — that a " sound 
mind in a sound body — ignorance and knowledge — virtue and vice — happi- 
ness and misery — heaven and hell — are in the power of the mother. This 
great truth (we repeat the expression) has been clear to men of clear discern- 
ment in all ages : every thinking man and woman knows that it is first in 
importance — it is first in theory, and third, fourth, or fortieth, in practice. 
Much has been said recently among politicians, about preparing the heart of* 
the nation for war. What a demoniacal idea ! It will perhaps be prepared 
for acting on this infinitely more important truth, when all the railroads shall 
have been constructed ; all the mines disemboweled ; all the elements of na- 
ture brought under control ; all the riches scraped together; all the vanities 
of life experimented. Then, the mass of men may begin to investigate their 
true interests as rational and immortal beings. Many good men indulge the 
belief that the great circle of time is running to completion ; that the golden 
age of the poets is to be restored, and the millenium of theologians to be 
realized, when the morning stars shall again sing together, as at the dawn of 
creation ; when the period of life shall be prolonged to its primitive length, 
and mankind live together as brethren, and as children of the Deity. This 
grand consummation can only be reached, when mothers shall comprehend 
and discharge the unspeakable responsibilities of their position. 

I appeal to history — to experience. Many great men in modern history, 



118 EDUCATION. 

in different spheres of action, have given the credit of their notoriety to their 
mothers. Many felons on the gallows, and in penitentiaries, have done the 
same. These are great facts. The two extremes establish the intermediate 
points. But farther: I appeal to the reader. Let every man — him who has 
realized his wishes and him who has been disappointed — him who stands high 
or low in society — or whose bodily frame is a fountain of happiness or misery 
— or whose habits, of good or evil, have become inveterate — or whose future 
looks bright and serene, or dark and dismal — let him go back to the very dawn 
of intellect, and after impartially ecinning his whole life, and tracing effect to 
its proper cause, ask himself how much of the joy or sorrow — the failure or 
success — the health or sickness — the hopes or fears which he has experienced, 
are to be attributed, directly or indirectly, to a mother's early training, the 
starting point of life. True, his own character is now fixed unalterably, al- 
most beyond the hope or fear of change ; but he may shed light upon the 
path of posterity, to encourage or to warn. Whether the result of this retro- 
spect be a picture of light or shade to himself, let him resolve, and act on the 
resolve, that his daughters and his friends' daughters shall be wiser than their 
mothers, and give a new impulse to the elevation of human life in the next 
generation. 

The stream can not rise above its fountain, and mothers can not teach what 
they do not know — hence the dead level on the surface of common or vulgar 
society from age to age. See that stalwart German in his woollen cap and 
leather breeches ; Christianity has somewhat softened the ruggedness of his 
frame and his mind, but except this and his pipe, he is a perfect representa- 
tive of his great sire who pitched battle with Julius Cesar. Go into the inte- 
rior counties of England, where the tide of life scarcely ebbs and flows, and 
you will hear the same uncouth pronunciation of common words, which 
mothers taught their children in the days of the heptarchy. But in a higher 
class, yea, the highest, the child may be trained to vice, to animal indulgence, 
to crime, to pursue a life of misery or infamy, without the mother's knowledge 
of the fact, while at the same time she is the unconscious agent in forming 
such a character. One faculty may be over-educated at the expense of others. 
A pious mother may follow her boy with prayers and tears, may instil into 
his tender mind lessons of wisdom from the cradle, and yet send him into life, 
with a disposition overflowing with irritability, selfishness, or envy (perhaps 
from the fountain in her own breast) ; or send him to an early grave, from 
ignorance of physiology. Such cases are not rare, Why are one half the 
human race, even in Christendom, stricken from life in infancy, or early 
childhood ? There are two reasons — the hereditary ignorance and maladies 
of parents ; and God's mercy in taking them away from a life of deformity 
and sorrow. 

Which class of faculties is it most important to cultivate ? Those which 
ne^d cultivation most. If the heart be right, the head next, and lastly, the 
bodily or physical. But be sure of the heart first of all, for an error here 
may be fatal. The heart is the controlling principle, even when its educa- 
tion has been neglected. That the heart is wrong, every sermon and Sunday 
school is a positive, and every prison and door lock a negative proof. " Knowl- 
edge is power" says the proverb. But there is power in the tornado and 
earthquake as well as in the sunlight. The one is destructive, the other vivi- 
fying. Leave the heart to its natural propensities, and educate the head; 
and you let loose the tornado, or put a sword into the hands of a madman. 
Keep the heart right, and realize the loveliness of that character so beauti- 
fully illustrated by the apostle ; James iii., 17. 

A boy needs no label to designate him. The truly educated and responsi- 
ble mother stamps her very soul and image upon her son. He may wander 
to the ends of the earth but her eye is ever upon him, her tone and manner 
imprinted on his heart. He may go in the dark night to the house of vice 
and raise the latch, but the far-off* voice of that mother comes to his ear, and 



EDUCATION. 119 

he turns away. On the other hand, it is just as sure as the relation of cause 
and effect, that the rowdy boy — whether a genteel or a vulgar one — had a 
rowdy mother. A rabble of boys at a street corner, talking obscenity and 
fully, are representatives of their mothers — so are a company at the prayer- 
meeting, or the theatre. 

" Give me the education of females for three generations, and I will change 
the face of the world. With the blessing of Heaven (ever ready of bestow- 
ment), I will lead back our fallen race to the gates of paradise. The sermon 
qu the mount shall be the only text-book in philosophy and religion. Meek- 
ness, love, and forgiveness, shall be living realities. I will endeavor to stamp 
the simplicity and innocence of childhood upon the soul, and make them im- 
mortal. Ambition., pride, and selfishness, shall be regarded as the antagonists 
of true happiness ; war and discord abhorred as the agents of the evil one. 
Education shall be confined to the simple but sublime realities of present ex- 
istence ; the arcana of life, of nature, and of futurity, being left where God 
nas left them, for the study and development of a higher state of being, and 
for association with a higher order of intelligence." 



Progress of Language. 

The following is Wickliffe's version of the Lord's Prayer, trans- 
lated in 1370 :— 

" Our fadyr that art in heavenes, Halloed be thy name. Thy 
kingdome come to, Be thy will done in erthe as in heavene ; Geve 
to us this day our bread over other substance ; and forgif to us our 
dettis as we forgeven to our detters ; And leed us not into temp- 
tationn, But deliver us from evel. Amen." 



11 



120 AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

AGRICULTURE. 

" There is one class of men on which we can yet rely — T mean the farmers. 
They were never found to trample on law and right. Were I to commit my 
character to any class of men, my family, and my country's safety, it would be 
to the farmers. They are a class of men such as the world never saw for 
honesty, intelligence, and Roman virtue, sweetened by the gospel of God. 
And when this nation quakes, they and their sons are those who will stand 
by the sheet-anchor of our liberties, and hold the ship at her moorings till she 
outrides the storm." — Dr. John Todd. 

" Agriculture," says a southern planter, " is a great business." 
Indeed it is, truly great in every point of view. It is the mother 
and sustainer of all other business — the great wheel which inter- 
locks with and keeps all .the little wheels in motion. Life itself 
is dependent upon it. There could be no civilization, no com- 
merce or merchandising, no fine houses, furniture, and equipages, 
no improvements in the sciences and arts, no enjoyment of the 
blessings of life, without the fruits of the earth, which are pro- 
duced by agriculture. And not only in the benefits it confers up- 
on others, but in blessings to the husbandman himself, it stands 
unrivalled. There is no other employment so useful, so honest, 
so independent, so certain in its returns, or so exempt from har- 
assing care. In all other occupations, man deals with his fellow- 
man, the husbandman alone with his Maker. God gave the earth 
to be tilled, and promised a blessing upon the toil. He intended 
the land to be distributed among its numerous inhabitants (not 
monopolized by a few), that each should be content in his industry, 
enjoy the fruit of his labor, and be lord of his possession. When 
this great law of the Creator has been carried out, communities 
have been most happy, and individuals have to the greatest ex- 
tent fulfilled the end of their earthly being. But the selfishness 
of men has made grievous work with this law of Omnipotence. 
Strange that the majority of mankind should give up their de- 
pendence upon G-od, and prefer to be dependent upon their fellow- 
men. Yet so it is. In almost all ages and countries, the multi- 
tude have submitted to be the hirelings and tenants of a few priv- 
ileged individuals, instead of asserting their rights to the products 
of their own labor. Submission to patriarchal authority, and 
deference to superior knowledge, begun this state of things in 
early times, and long-continued custom established it on a firm 
footing. More than three fourths of the human family are under 



AGRICULTURE. 121 

bondage so great, that they can scarcely call anything their own, 
but what their human lords — acting " by the grace of God" — are 
pleased to grant them. 

S^y In France before the revolution, the 2iobles and clergy possessed tico 
thirds of the land in the kingdom ; the church alone possessed nearly half. 
To add to this grievance, the nobles and clergy were exempted from several 
of the most oppressive taxes ; and this exemption was " founded on the feudal 
fiction that the nobles defended the state by their swords, and the priests in- 
terceded for it by their prayers." After this statement, it need hardly be re- 
peated that not one in fifty of the people of France could read. There were 
150,000 individuals of these privileged orders, who. besides their freedom from 
taxation, monopolized every office of importance in the church, the army, the 
court, and the bench. On the other hand were about twenty -seven millions of 
common people, who possessed bat one third of the land, who were debarred 
from lucrative or responsible offices, and who yet paid most of the taxes. So 
excessive was the burden imposed upon agricultural labor, that it is said, sup- 
posing the produce of an acre worth $13.76 ; the proportion which went to the 
king was $8.40 ; to the landlord, $3.96 ; and to the actual cultivator, $1.40, 
or about one tenth of his own labor. (In England, at the same period, if the 
produce of an acre was £8, the land and poor tax would be 10 shillings, the 
rent £l, 10 shillings, leaving the cultivator, £6, or three fourths. And yet 
some Americans grumble though they have it all, because the price is so low.) 
The revolution produced a more equal division of the land in France. Seven- 
ty thousand of the nobles and clergy fled the country, and their estates were 
confiscated. There are now four millions of proprietors of land in France, 
constituting with their families, more than half the population. But the curse 
of war and ignorance still rests upon them, the land-tax being now at least 
twenty-five per cent, on the gross agricultural profits, often forty or fifty per 
cent on the landowner's income. Nothing can save France from continuing 
to be a land of revolutions, but public intelligence and virtue. The strongest 
prop to the throne (an hereditary nobility) has been knocked away, and public 
opinion must hereafter rule. The popularity and wisdom of the present king 
have prevented any popular outbreak since the commencement of his reign. 

As in France before the revolution, so in almost the whole of Eu- 
rope at present, the land is chiefly owned by the crown, the no- 
bles, and the church. This is the case even in England, but there 
the system of long leases at a fixed rent per acre or per annum, 
has given to tenants an interest in the soil almost equal to owner- 
ship, and many of them are men of large income ; while on the 
continent the metayer system generally prevails, by which the 
lord furnishes the land and sometimes stock and seed, the tenant 
does the work, and the produce is equally divided. 

Let the great class of tillers of the soil in this country, com- 
pare their own favored lot with that of others whose situation we 
have sketched, and thank God for their multiplied blessings. 

For the wages of a year's labor, a young man can purchase 
land enough in the west (and in many parts of the old states), to 
support a family by his own toil, with a choice of location from 
the burning south to the frozen north. In all this range, the great 
agricultural staples are produced in abundance. In the old states, 
possessing yet vast quantities of untilled land, the extra amount 



122 AGRICULTURE. 

of labor and cost of production, are compensated by proximity to 
market, and greater value of produce. If the good and evil of 
different locations and circumstances be fairly balanced, the world 
is a much more even bargain than mankind are generally disposed 
to admit. 

Blest as the American farmer is with physical enjoyments, in 
moral, political, and civil privileges, his condition is still more 
enviable. The laws to which he owes allegiance, and the minis- 
ters of religion who instruct him, are those only of his own 
choosing. His property and labor can not be taxed, as they are in 
every other country, for the expensive maintenance of government 
officers, who render very little service for enormous salaries. 
Whatever may be said by demagogues and politicians to the con- 
trary, the American government is yet administered with great 
economy, and there are very few servants of the public who eat 
the bread of idleness, or who enjoy sinecure offices. The royal 
family of England alone, without including any of the working 
men of the government are paid a larger sum than is paid to all 
the government officers in Washington, including the members of 
Congress. The commander of the British army receives more 
than $150,000 per annum ; the commanding general of the Amer- 
ican army, about $7,000. The prime minister of England's sal- 
ary, is $25,000 ; the American secretary of state's, $6,000. It is 
true the people are sometimes taxed by defaulters and unworthy 
public agents, but this is altogether their own fault, and will be 
until they make laws to consign the public plunderer to the pen- 
itentiary. The fellow who steals a farmer's horse is a felon, the 
government agent who appropriates a hundred thousand dollars 
to his own use gets off, perhaps with the character of a " whole- 
souled" gentleman. 

The mighty energies put forth in this country, in constructing 
works of public improvement, in commercial, manufacturing, and 
mining operations, are sure evidences of the prosperity of Amer- 
ican farmers ; for whatever amount of intelligence and enterprise 
a nation may possess, they can only be exerted to the fullest ex- 
tent, where there is abundance of agricultural products. In no 
other country is this abundance so great, or so equally distributed. 

And let not the farmers forget while enjoying their unequalled 
privileges, that under God they are responsible for their perpetu- 
ity. Where three fourths of the population are farmers, and ev- 
ery man a freeman, and almost all freeholders, the class of far- 
mers have the power in their own hands, and must be responsible 
for its exercise. The government is one of their choice, and it 
can not be changed or modified, except by their consent, or through 
their default. 

Before offering some practical remarks on agriculture, we wish 
to call attention to the fact that government does nothing, or very 



AGRICULTURE. 123 

little directly for its improvement. We once heard a spirited 
conversation on the subject, in which the question was asked 
" What can government do for agriculture I" The question is a 
fair one and important, and we wish to send it abroad, and com- 
mend it to the judgment of those who are interested — pass it 
around among the farmers — "What can the government do for 
agriculture ?" Perhaps on a future occasion we may be the medi- 
um of communicating some useful suggestions to the public on 
the subject. 

£3p We had almost forgotten, while writing the foregoing pages, that Con- 
gress has done something for agriculture. The annual reports of the patent 
office for the last few years (previous to 1846), contained, in addition to the 
usual matter from that office, several hundred pages of statistical and other 
information designed to aid general improvement in agriculture and the 
arts. The .expense of the compilation was taken from the surplus of the 
patent office fund ; the expense of printing, from the treasury. Several thou- 
sands of copies extra were printed by order of Congress for general distribu- 
tion. No appropriation being made for this object during the previous session, 
of course none has been published for the present year ; but we have observed 
an appropriation made at the last session of Congress for its continuance in the 
next annual report of the patent office, but limiting the amount of matter to 
four hundred pages. We hope the gentleman charged with the business 
will take the raw material collected for this document, and subject it to the 
action of the latest improved winnowing machine (there are plenty in the pat- 
ent office), that all chaff may be excluded, and then to the action of the best 
patent pressing machine ; that nothing but solid matter — multum in parvo — 
may be given to the public. Then if Congress will order a sufficient number 
of this valuable document printed and distributed to give one to each school 
district in the Union (perhaps 60,000), or in that ratio by some other mode of 
distribution, its benefits will be equalized ; the ignorant and indigent classes 
will obtain access to it. and it will be proved that Congress can and has done 
something, and something useful, for agriculture. 

The farming interest has manifested a spirit of enterprise and 
degree of improvement, in the last twenty-five years, fully equal to 
those of other branches of industry. Within that period the actual 
products of the soil in the old states north and east of Washing- 
ton, have probably been doubled, and so has also, in some of the 
states, the aggregate value of the land. The old states of the south 
have been applying their energies in earnest to the renovation of 
their impoverished fields. Agricultural papers have increased ten- 
fold in the same period, and agricultural societies probably more. 
Twenty years ago it was rare to find a, book-farmer, that is, a 
farmer who read books on his art and business : he ploughed, and 
sowed, and reaped — and perhaps carried a Stone in one end of the 
bag — just as his fathers had done before him. At the present day, 
many farmers are well read on the subject of their occupation, 
and all should be so who wish to thrive. In farming, ignorance 
and poverty will always stand in the relation of parent and off- 
spring. The application of science to agriculture has become a 



124 AGRICULTURE. 

subject of study and experiment to many, and the useful results 
therefrom been extensively diffused. And yet there is great room 
for improvement. After all the knowledge which has been 
gained, the art of farming is yet comparatively in its infancy. Its 
practical results are far below their maximum, even in favorable 
circumstances. But what is chiefly wanted at the present day, 
is the diffusion of useful knowledge among the poorer classes. 
There is little danger but the inquisitive and intelligent will push 
their inquiries and follow up their success with greater zeal and 
diligence ; but who will stoop down and lend a helping hand to 
shed light upon the path of the benighted ? The most ignorant 
and slovenly farmer can raise crops on rich ground — the aborgi- 
nes of this country had plenty of corn for their own use, without 
oxen, horses, ploughs, or manure — but the object to be attained is 
to preserve the rich and resuscitate the worn-out lands ; to re- 
claim waste and barren fields ; to make the best application of 
crops and manures to different soils ; to make, indeed, two stalks 
of corn or grass grow next year where but one grows at present. 
The great majority of our small farmers in the old states are strug- 
gling to make both ends meet on poor lands — made poorer by bad 
management — and consequently bad is growing worse every year. 
Many of this class are the very slaves of industry, perhaps also 
temperate and frugal, but still they don't get ahead. What is 
the matter ? Why, the principal difficulty is, they can't do head- 
work; they are lacking in good management ; their mothers 
probably failed in teaching them the most important practical 
lessons in life — " everything in its proper time and place," and 
" strike while the iron is hot." We ask the more favored, and 
fortunate, and successful, if they have not a bounden duty to per- 
form — founded upon the great moral law of doing as we would be 
done by — in helping this hard-toiling, behind-hand class, up the 
rugged path of a poor farmer's life ? They want light. Lend 
them your agricultural journals and newspapers. Show them 
their errors in a tone of kindness and fellow-feeling, and not of 
ridicule or authority. Endeavor to make the boys wiser than 
their fathers ; but above all, try to elevate the girls in mental ca- 
pacity above their mothers : by so doing, you may relieve a future 
generation from the necessity of enlarging their poorhouses and 
prisons. • 

Keeping the subjec^of the last paragraph in view, we 'purpose 
to devote the remainder of this chapter to one single important 
point in agriculture, and that is, the folly and slavery of cultiva- 
ting too much land. If we can fasten attention upon this point, 
we shall awaken an interest upon a subject second to no other in 
practical utility. And this we shall endeavor to do by stating 
maxims, facts, and arguments — with little regard to method per- 
haps—but all having a direct bearing upon the question at issue, 



AGRICULTURE, 125 

and supported by the united testimony of common sense and ex- 
perience. 

"What man has done, man can do again ;" and if one farmer 
has produced one hundred bushels of corn or five himdred bushels 
of potatoes on one acre, another farmer — we came near saying 
any other farmer — can do the same. 

Mother Earth is not fitful in her favors, but with even-handed 
justice treats her children just as she is treated. She is as wil- 
ling to return a hundred-fold as ten-fold — to yield a load of oats 
as a load of weeds. 

Experience has proved that a man may spend all his time use- 
fully and profitably on one half acre of ground; while there are 
multitudes of farmers who do not make both ends meet on a hun- 
dred acres. Certain it is, as we intend to show presently, that 
one acre of land well cultivated, is more profitable than one hun- 
dred acres of slovenly farming. 

Thousands of farms in Belgium, Ireland, and other parts of 
Europe, do not exceed five acres in extent, and one of these sup- 
ports a family comfortably — and 3,'load of taxation besides. 

The average product of wheat and other grains in England is 
double to that of the United States ; in the former about 28 or 30 
bushels, in the latter about 14 or 15 ; showing that superior culti- 
vation on an old soil is an overmatch for the natural resources of 
our own lands with slight or careless tillage. 

In Ireland, 10 tons, 375 bushels, of potatoes to the acre is con- 
sidered a fair crop ; 12 tons, or 450 bushels, an extra one : is the 
American crop of this vegetable more than half the amount on an 
average ? 

Which is the easiest and cheapest, to obtain one hundred bushels 
of corn from one acre, by judicious application of labor and manure, 
or to work over five acres for the same quantity ? Answer. An 
intelligent farmer says: If I had 1,000 acres of land and but 40 
loads of manure, I would plant but one acre if the ground was 
not rich. 

There are statements in the papers and reports of societies, of 
50 and 60 bushels of wheat, and 100, 150, and nearly 200 bushels 
of corn, produced on a single acre — and there is no hocus pocus 
in this ; it is only what every farmer may do by proper manage- 
ment. 



What can be done on one Acre of Ground. — The editor of the 
Maine Cultivator published, a few years ago, his management of 
one acre of ground, from which we gather the following results : 
one third of an acre in corn usually produced thirty bushels of 
sound corn for grinding, besides some refuse. This quantity was 
sufficient for family use, and for fattening one large or two small 



126 AGRICULTURE. 

hogs. From the same ground he obtained two or three hundred 
pumpkins, and his family supply of dry beans. From a bed of 
six rods square he usually obtained sixty bushels of onions ; these 
he sold at $1 per bushel, and the amount purchased his flour. 
Thus from one third of an acre and an onion-bed, he obtained all 
his breadstuff. 

The rest of the ground was appropriated to all sorts of vegeta- 
bles for summer and winter use ; potatoes, beets, parsnips, cabbage, 
green corn, peas, beans, cucumbers, melons, squashes, &c, with 
fifty or sixty bushels of beets and carrots for the winter food of a 
cow. Then he had also a flower-garden ; raspberries, currants, 
gooseberries, in great variety ; and a few choice apple, pear, 
plum, cherry, peach, and quince trees. 

Some reader may call the above a " Yankee trick ;" so it is, and our object 
in publishing it is to have it repeated all over Yankee-land, and everywhere 
else. If a family can be supported from one acre of ground in Maine, the 
same can be done in every state and eveiy county of the Union. 



Product of the Garden attached to the Insane Retreat, Hartford, 
Connecticut — in one season, 

[We had doubts about the propriety of publishing the following, thinking 
it might be considered a " tough story'' for a work expressly designed to dis- 
seminate facts and useful information ; but the statement we find in print, and 
well authenticated. It may not be amiss to remark that the locality is one of 
the most favorable for producing so enormous a quantity with the least labor 
and artificial stimulants, the soil around Hartford being naturally rich, com- 
posed of a strong clayey loam, to a great depth.] 

" This garden contains l\ acres. Produce : lettuce, 1-100 large 
heads ; cabbage, 1,400 large heads; radishes, 700 buncb c ; aspar- 
agus, 250 bunches ; rhubarb, 300 lbs. ; peas, 14 busrwi£ : n pods ; 
beans, 40 bushels, in pods ; green corn, 419 dozen ; summer 
squashes, 715 dozen ; peppers, 45 dozen ; cucumbers, 756 dozen ; 
cucumbers, for pickles, 7 barrels ; beets, 147 bushels ; carrots, 24 
bushels ; parsnips, 26 bushels ; onions, 120 bushels ; turnips, 80 
bushels ; tomatoes, 40 bushels ; early potatoes, 35 bushels ; win- 
ter-squashes, 7 wagon-loads ; celery, 500 large heads. Total 
worth, at the lowest market price, $625. 

" The produce of vegetables was sufficient for the family, av- 
eraging 135 persons, and more than they could consume. The 
gardener considered it an easy task for one person to do all the la- 
bor required. The land is good, but no better than the land in 
this region. It has been well manured every year [a very need- 
less statement], but no extra or unusual expense incurred." 

But, says the objector, these are specimens of good gardens ; 
what has that to do with farming ? We answer, gardening is 
only farming on a small piece of ground, and the perfection of the 



AGRICULTURE. 127 

latter is attained just in proportion as it approximates to garden- 
ing, that is, in obtaining a large product from a small space. In 
proof of this, we present the following statement of what can 
be done at farming, for we presume it will be admitted that 100 
acres is rather too large to be properly called a garden. 

Product of 100 acres, being the Farm of James Gowan, Esq., 
Mount Airy, Germantown, near Philadelphia — in one season. 

120 tons of hay, at $18 ; 400 bushels of wheat, at $1 ; 300 
bushels of rye, at 80 cents ; 100 bushels of oats, at 40 cents ; 
1000 bushels of corn, at 60 cents ; 500 bushels of potatoes, at 75 
cents ; 900 bushels of carrots, at 40 cents ; 600 bushels of ruta- 
baga turnips, at 25 cents ; 600 bushels of sugar beets, at 40 cents ; 
1500 bushels of turnips, at 12^ cents; 15 hogs — 45 cwt. pork, at 
$5 ; cattle, calves,- and pigs, sold, $347 ; net sales of milk and 
butter, over $1500.— Total, $6,724.50. 

Stock kept, 50 head of cattle, 7 horses, 30 swine. 

Paid for labor during the year, $1,000. 

Sixty-seven dollars worth of produce for every acre of the farm, zwHjifty- 
seven after paying for labor ! A sum much above the average price of land 
per acre in Pennsylvania. Mr. Growan has a great advauta.sre in being near 
a large market (though there are thousands of farmers as well situated in this 
respect, who do not produce one fifth the quantity on 100 acres) but the enor- 
mous amount of produce above stated, affords a striking proof of what may 
be done by wisdom in planning, and perseverance in executing. 

Now let us try an experiment with figures, exhibiting the dif- 
ference between profitable and unprofitable farming. This may 
perhaps be called farming on paper, but we will venture the as- 
sertion that every country reader has seen numerous specimens 
of both No. 1 and No. 2,. in the course of his observation. We 
take the article of corn for illustration (although the principle 
will apply to every other product), because it is the great staple 
of grain agriculture, and a magnificent vegetable. We doubt 
whether the luxuriance of the tropics can present a more pleasing 
sight, than a rich field of growing maize, with its forest of dark 
green foliage, and teeming with the promised harvest. We are 
more proud of our country that can claim this plant as a native 
of the soil. , 

Statement of the cost of cultivating two fields of Corn, and the 
quantity produced in each — " adapted," as the almanacs say, 
" to every part" of the Union. 

(No. 1.) 
DR. 

Interest on two acres of land, worth $50 per acre $6.00 

50 loads of manure, at 25 cents . 12.50 

Spreading the same, 1 day's work 75 

Ploughing and harrowing, 3 days ..... 4.50 



128 AGRICULTURE. 

Ploughing, second time, 2 days $3.00 

Furrowing and drilling 25 loads of manure, and planting, 6 

days '. . . 9.00 

Manure, 25 loads, at 25 cents . . . 6.25 

Seed, 50 cents — ploughing and hoeing, twice, $10 10.50 

Expense of gathering 5.00 

$57.50 
CR. 

By 90 bushels of corn per acre, 75 cts $135.00 

w Corn -fodder and manure made 20.00 

$155.00 

Difference $97.50 

(No. 2.) 
DR. 

Interest on 2 acres, worth $15 $1.80 

Ten loads of manure at 25 cts 2.50 

Ploughing and harrowing 2 days 3.00 

Planting 4 days, $3, seed 50 cts 3.50 

Ploughing and hoeing twice 7.50 

Expense of gathering 3.00 

$21.30 
CR. 

By 15 bushels corn per acre, 75 cts $22.50 

" fodder and manure made . • 5.00 

$27.50 

Difference $6.20 

Little manure, much labor, little crop, little profit. This system (No. 2) 
practised on a large scale, say 20 acres, would assuredly make a much larger 
"difference," but it would be on the wrong side. 

If No. 1 had spread his manure at the same" rate as No. 2, viz., 5 loads to 
the acre, he would have cultivated 15 acres; still the better quality of his land 
might have overbalanced the extra labor required, and saved him a profit. 

If No. 2 had put all his manure on one fourth an acre of land, and cultiva- 
ted with as much care as No. 1, he might have obtained as large an amount 
of produce in proportion to the value of his land, and saved more than . three 
fourths of his labor and expense. 

Thus a poor farmer owns poor land, keeps it poor by poor cul- 
tivation, and obtains a poor crop— realizing the assertion of the 
Pennsylvania farmer, that fifteen, twenty, or thirty bushels of 
corn to the acre, was a poor, mean, sneaking business; forty or 
fifty bushels was barely respectable. Indeed, we are convinced, 
from our observation of the tillage and crops in various sections 



AGRICULTURE. 129 

of the country, that there is an amount of human labor, and wear 
and (ear of cattle and implements, thrown away in every one of the 
old states, every year, upon poor crops, sufficient to build a rail- 
road or construct a canal across the state. By labor, &c, thrown 
away, we mean the useless toil of minting over five or ten acres 
of ground for a crop which with proper management might be 
produced on one. We ask the attention of the thinking farmer 
to the statement — or, assertion. 

The same principle applies with equal force to all the branches 
and details of husbandry. Instance the keeping of stock and the 
cultivation of fruit. It will cost no more (generally less) to keep 
a cow yielding twelve quarts of milk per day, than one yielding 
three or four quarts. Supposing the first cost of the cow to be 
double or triple, how will the amount stand for a year ? 

3^ quarts of milk per day, at 3 cents - - $38.31 

Cost of cow $15 ; keeping $20 - - - 35.00 



Difference $03.31 

12 quarts of milk per day, at 3 cents - $131.40 

Cost of cow $40 ; keeping $20 - - - 60.00 



Difference $71.40 

A sum which will buy two good cows in almost any part of the 
Union. None but a rich man can afford to keep a poor cow ; but 
rich men are seldom caught in such business. 

Once more — respecting fruit. Some men will keep an apple 
or other fruit tree standing, where it shades half the garden without 
producing any fruit — or any other than is fit only for the pigs. 
The ground wasted or exhausted by such a tree would produce 
many dollars' worth of the finest small fruits, strawberries, &c. 

In nothing is the improvement in agriculture more manifest in 
the country generalhvthan in fruit. The whole Union seems to 
be excited on the subject of raising fine fruits. An eminent wri- 
ter says the time is not distant, when the western states will be 
forested with fruit-trees. And we say the time will come, not 
very distant, when, besides a great abundance for home consump- 
tion, the export of fruit will exceed in amount (should there be a 
demand for it), that of any article of export. We should be 
pleased to give a chapter on this subject, for we have noted the 
progress of fruit-raising with much interest : but our limits will 
not permit at present. But we will record for the benefit of pos- • 
terity> a short account of the old-fashioned mode of proceeding in 
this department of agriculture. 

In former — not very old — times, the mode of raising, selecting, 
and transplanting fruit-trees, was very curious ; at least it appears 
so to a modern workman at the business. The enterprising far- 



130 ' b AGRICULTURE. 

mer who concluded to plant an orchard, would go to a tangled 
swamp of young apple-trees, called a nursery, in one corner of 
his own or his neighbor's mowing-field, where eight or ten years 
before, a load of pomice from the cider-mill had been scattered 
and ploughed in ; and after a good deal of labor in hewing away 
the underbrush, be able to select his trees. The selection con- 
sisted in choosing straight handsome trees, the fruit was of course 
all guesswork. The tools employed in taking up the trees, were 
a hoe to clear the surface, an axe to chop off the roots, and a pair 
of oxen and chains to tear a stubborn tree from the ground. With 
the roots and bark all torn and mangled, they were thrown loose 
into a cart, carried to the site of the future orchard, tumbled on the 
ground for the full action of the sun and wind on the roots. Then, 
or perhaps next day, commenced the operation of " setting out." 
With a hoe, and sometimes the aid of a shovel or spade, holes 
were dug nearly the shape and size of large milk-pans, into which 
the roots were thrust and doubled and twisted, then the earth 
thrown in, and rammed and stamped till it was hard. We have 
known men of sound sense and good judgment in common mat- 
ters, practise thus within our recollection (and the number of 
stunted, scraggy, consumptive orchards, in all parts of the coun- 
try, is conclusive proof of the truth of our statement), and we 
doubt not the same mode is still in vogue in some, if not all the 
states, at the present day. 

But it has been found out that this game of chance, like buying 
lottery-tickets, is very uncertain business, and is becoming out of 
fashion among intelligent cultivators. Indeed, few men can now 
be found (we hope none), who will purchase or plant trees, cut- 
tings, or seeds, &c, without being satisfied of their good qualities. 
Themselves and their children will be the chief sufferers if they 
do. The perfection of fruits is now so far advanced, and nurser- 
ies are so plenty, that ignorance on this subject— like the maxim 
ignorance of the law — will excuse no one. 



The following statement shows the number of plants or trees 
on an acre of ground, according to their distance apart. An acre 
contains 43,560 square feet, of course that number of plants can 
be set on an acre, one foot asunder. At 1J feet apart, each wav, 
19,360 may be set ; at 2 feet, 10,9S0 ; at 2\, 6,969 ; at 3, 4,820 ; 
at 4, 2,722; at 5, 1,742; at 6, 1,210; at 10, 435; at 12, 302; at 
Jp, 193 ; at 20, 108 (suitable distance for peach-trees) ; at 25, 69 ; 
at 30, 48 ; at 40, 27 ; the last two suitable for apple-trees. 



Length of time in which seeds may be safely trusted to ger- 
minate, if properly kept, — Parsnip and rhubarb, two years ; beans 
and peas, two or three ; carrot, nasturtium, mustard, parsley, let- 



AGRICULTURE. 131 

tuce, three or four ; pepper, salsify, radish, endive, egg-plant, cab- 
bage, spinach, tomato, turnip, four or five ; asparagus, onion, cel- 
ery, okra, broccoli, cauliflower, five or six ; beet, cucumber, gourd, 
melon, squash, pumpkin, corn and other grains, six to ten years, 
or longer. 

It is impossible to say how long seeds may be made to preserve 
their vitality Avith proper care ; but it is certain any sort may be 
spoiled in one year, by damp or heat. The great secret in keep- 
ing, is to have them well matured, and kept cool and dry. 



Weight of Grains, <$c. — Wheat, 60 lbs. to the bushel ; beans, 
60 ; clover-seed, 60 ; potatoes, 60 ; rye, 56 ; corn, 56 ; flax-seed, 
56 ; onions, 51 ; buckwheat, 52 ; salt, 50 ; barley, 48 ; castor-beans, 
46; hemp-seed, 44; timothy-seed, 45; oats, 25; bran, 20; dried 
peaches, 33 ; dried apples, 24 ; stone-coal, 70. The above are 
given as the standard weights in St. Louis, Missouri ; and we 
believe are nearly the same throughout the western states. 



We could easily fill a chapter with useful tables and hints like 
the above, and many others with practical information of great 
value, and the wish to do so is not wanting ; but the space as- 
signed to the subject is already filled. Instead of rambling obser- 
vations without point, Ave have endeaA r ored in this essay to fix the 
attention of the reader upon a single important fact, an error of 
almost universal practice in our practical agriculture, reformation 
in AA^hich Avould tend greatly both to lighten the toil and increase 
the produce of the farmer. 

We offer one more suggestion. Let the farmer Avho has one 
hundred acres, more or less, on which he has managed to obtain 
a living, and on Avhich he has brought up three or four boys to 
habits of industry and economy, instead of hiring them out by the 
month, or sending them off to "seek their fortunes" abroad, or 
(worst of all) putting them behind a counter or in a lawyer's 
office, divide his farm among them. Make a map of each boy's 
portion Avhile yet a boy ; begin to fix his attention upon it early ; 
furnish him a good agricultural paper (don't neglect that) ; en- 
courage him to plan for himself; and when of age, help him in 
cultivating his crops. Let him live under the paternal roof till 
he is able to build himself a cabin, and then emigrate — into it. 
By that time, experience will have taugh* him that the grand se- 
cret of thrift and success in agriculture is, not a great farm, but 
good cultivation ; and his ambition AAdll be centred upon accom- 
plishing what has been so favorably begun, A r iz., obtaining the 
maximum product from all his acres. The old father in the au- 
tumn of life may exhibit the reality of the patriarchal state with 
his numerous descendants around him ; and have the further grat- 

12 



132 - AGRICULTURE. 

ification of witnessing a larger income from every twenty, or every 
ten acres of his homestead, than from the whole when under his 
own management. Thorough cultivation is the great principle 
for which we are contending, and the basis of all profitable farm- 
ing ; and where this is kept in view, we say that twenty-five acres 
is the maximum extent which a farmer wants who is dependent 
on his own industry and toil ; more than this will probably keep 
him poor, less will generally be more profitable : and no matter, 
whether his principal business is raising potatoes in Maine ; ma- 
king maple sugar and keeping sheep in Vermont ; raising hemp 
in Missouri ; sugar-cane in Louisiana; cotton in Alabama; trop- 
ical fruits in Florida ; or various grains and fruits in the middle 
states ; the same principle will hold good. We have a neighbor 
to whom we sometimes apply to solve knotty questions in culti- 
vation. He has got to be " well to do," if not rich, on six or eight 
acres of land. He lives in view of the great national statehouse, 
but takes no interest in court affairs. He obeys the, eleventh com- 
mandment — "minds his own business." Nature gave him good 
sense, his father taught him industry, his mother stamped upon 
his youthful mind her own habits of order and close observation ; 
and with these as a basis, though ignorant of Greek and al- 
gebra, he is a thoroughly-educated man. The example of such 
men, in their industry and economy, and consequent thrift, is 
worth more to the state than a mountain of books on the theory 
of good government. He knows what politicians frequently lack 
— his own business thoroughly. He might fail in deciphering a 
Mexican hieroglyphic, but carry him a strawberry or a peach leaf, 
-and he will tell you the proper name of the fruit. We proposed 
to him once to push off his growing-up boys to the west. " No," 
not he ; the west is too big. But he'was "looking out" for some 
suitable " lots" for his boys, as fast as they should be old enough, 
of " three or four acres" a-piece. Our neighbor is a man of large 
capacity and views, and with these to guide him, he chooses for 
his sons, who are destined to a life of manual toil, three or four 
acres, in preference to a large domain ; and this not from a calcu- 
lation of dollars and cents, for his lots of three or four acres will 
cost more each than one thousand acres of government land. For 
what purpose does a man want more than " enough" ? 

Perhaps the intelligent farmer who has read this chapter will 
say there is nothing new in these observations — to him. Very 
true ; we knew this ourselves, but wish to be the medium of com- 
municating some of the knowledge he possesses to those who are 
ignorant. To this end, we bespeak his aid in behalf of our under- 
taking. We have designed to throw together as much plain, prac- 
tical matter, and in a form for preservation and reference, as can 
be afforded for a trifling sum. We ask his aid in its circulation,' 



AGRICULTURE. 133 

It will not diminish the height on which he stands, to see his 
neighbors raising themselves up to his elevation. The levelling- 
up doctrine is according to the spirit of the age : it is emphatical- 
ly the true American, and especially the American farmer's doc- 
trine, and one to which every liberal mind among them will give 
his assent and encouragement. 



We can not more appropriately close this chapter, than by giv- 
ing a list of agricultural papers in the United States. We trust 
our little work will circulate all over the Union, and if we can 
aid in extending the knowledge of these useful periodicals, we 
shall not have lived or written in vain. A farmer without a good 
agricultural paper is, in this age, about where a clergymen would 
be without his bible, or a lawyer without his Blackstone — that 
is, in a pretty dark corner. Every farmer should take one — and 
they are useful in every family, whether farmers or not. The list 
shows they are numerous — in most of the states. With several 
on the list we are familiar, and know them to be very useful ; 
and have no reason to doubt but the others are the same. Other 
things being equal, we should recommend the public to take the 
papers published in their own state — from motives of state patri- 
otism : — 

Agricultural Papers in the United States. 

Alabama Planter, Mobile, Alabama, monthly, at S3 per annum. 

American Agriculturist, New York, monthly, at $1 per annum. 

American Farmer, Baltimore, Maryland, monthly, at $1 per annum. 

American Journal of Agriculture and Science, Albany, New York, monthly, 
at $2 per annum. 

Boston Cultivator, Boston, Massachusetts, weekly, at $2 per annum. 

Cultivator, Albany, New York, monthly, at $1 per annum. 

Farmer's Cabinet, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, monthly, at $1 per annum. 

Farmers Library and Monthly Journal of Agriculture, New York, month- 
ly, at $5 per annum. 

Farmer s Monthly Visiter, Concord, New Hampshire, monthly, at 75 cents. 

Genesee Farmer, Rochester, New York, monthly, at 50 cents per annum. 

Horticulturist, Albany, New York, monthly, at $3 per annum. 

Lancaster County Farmer, Lancaster, Penn., weekly, at $2 per annum. 

Maine Farmer, Augusta, Maine, weekly, at $2 per annum. 

Maine Cultivator, Hallowell, Maine, weekly, at 82 per annum. 

Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, &c. t Boston, Mass., monthly, at $3. 

Massachusetts Ploughman, Boston, Massachusetts, weekly, $2 per annum. 

Michigan Farmer, Jackson, Michigan, monthly, at $1 per annum. 

New Rngland Farmer, Worcester, Mass., weekly, at $2 per annum. 

Neic York Farmer and Mechanic, New York, weekly, at $2 per annum. 

Ohio Cultivator, Columbus, Ohio, weekly, at $1 per annum. 

Planter's Banner, Franklin, Louisiana, weekly, at $4 per annum. 

Prairie Farmer, Chicago, Illinois, monthly, at Si per annum. 

Southern Planter, Richmond, Virginia, monthly, at $1 per annum. 

Southern Cultivator, Augusta, Georgia, monthly, at $1 per annum. 

Western Farmer and Gardener, Indianapolis, Ind., monthly, $1 per annum. 



134 THE GREAT WEST. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE GREAT WEST. 

" A nation of busy men." 

The great west will not stop to be described, nor stay described 
a moment. While we have been collecting the following items, 
new cities have been built or doubled, new states formed, railroads 
constructed, millions added to the acres under cultivation, and car- 
avans seeking by new and untrodden ways the end of the Far West. 
Such is the character of our race. Endless mountains, plains, 
and rivers, only incite the adventurer to know what is beyond 
them. The universal Yankee nation would have pushed out trap- 
pers into the mountains of Tar tar y and under the great wall of 
China before this, did not the Pacific intervene. In contrast, it 
may be stated that St. Louis was settled by the French in 1664, 
and in 1770 there were only forty private families. At this rate 
the French race might have remained here in the heart of the 
continent for centuries, and left the country to the dominion of 
Indians and wolves. The English were among the latest of Eu- 
ropean nations in sending colonies to the new world, yet at the 
present time their proper descendants are probably twice as nu- 
merous as those from all other nations. The Spaniards and Portu- 
guese have settled or professed to own extensive tracts on this 
continent, but a vast majority of their population is of aborigi- 
nal or mongrel blood ; while that of the British (and German) race 
remains to a great extent unmixed. We are indebted for our 
standing and elevated position as a nation in part to this fact, but 
much more to the great principles of English liberty and religious 
toleration. The difference between English- American and Span- 
ish-American republicanism is this, that the freedom of the former 
is based on the Bible, that of the latter on priestcraft ; the former 
is liberal and expansive, the latter enslaved to a cruel spiritual 
despotism that will not bear expansion. 

The Americans had climbed over the Allegan ies, at various 
points, during and immediately after the Revolution ; but it was 
not until after the acquisition of Louisiana, in 1803, that the na- 
tion began to move westward. Since that period, the white pop- 
ulationof the great valley has increased from a few thousands to 
ten millions ; whole states have been changed from a howling 
wilderness into fruitful fields ; great cities have been built ; and 



THE GREAT WEST. 135 

while all these improvements are rapidly progressing, thousands 
of miners are also vexing the howels of the earth on Lake Supe- 
rior ; steamboats are puffing their steam under the Rocky mount- 
ains ; and busy men are speculating on the best route for a railroad 
to the Pacific. " Go ahead" is the national watchword : the boy 
catches it as soon as he is out of the cradle, the old man repeats 
it with one foot in the grave. Where is the nation going ? 

There is something fearful in contemplating in imagination the 
future destiny of the great valley. There is one river basin in the 
world larger in extent, and of unbounded natural resources (that 
of the Amazon) ; but its situation under a tropical sun will always 
deprive its inhabitants of that energy of character necessary for 
great enterprises and exerting great influences. But with respect 
to position, extent, climate, and resources combined, no other 
great basin possesses advantages equalling the Mississippi. 

1. Look at its position with respect to the rest of the world. 
Situated in the centre of a great continent, with a narrow border 
of land separating it from an ocean on either side, it possesses fa- 
cilities for communicating with the whole world beyond those of 
any other section. The influence of European civilization and 
learning can not be felt upon the populous regions of southeastern 
Asia (where one half of the inhabitants of the earth are crowded 
together upon one twentieth of its surface), without crossing two 
oceans ; hence its effects have been very limited, even with the 
aid of a lucrative and increasing commerce, during a period of 
three and a half centuries. But these regions are little further 
from the western side of North America than Europe from the 
eastern (Europe from the Atlantic states, 70 degrees of longitude ; 
eastern Asia from California, 100). Hence the western side of 
this continent is in a position to exert an influence upon these an- 
cient and populous countries, far greater than can be exerted by 
any other enlightened nation. The cities to arise on the Pacific 
and the section west of the Rocky mountains will first feel this 
influence ; but they will only be depots and thoroughfares for the 
great valley, when its western side shall be peopled, and great 
avenues opened to the coast of the Pacific. Thus communicating 
with Europe and Africa on one side, and on the other with Asia, 
while its natural outlet is in close proximity with the richest trop- 
ical regions, the position of this valley for exerting a controlling 
influence upon the destiny of the world can not be rivalled. 

2. In extent and climate iuis not less worthy of observation. 
Extending through nearly 20 degrees of latitude, with its southern 
limit bordering on a tropical, and its northern on a frozen region, 
it embraces precisely that temperate section of the earth which 
has everywhere produced the greatest abundance of the most val- 
uable fruits, and races of men with the greatest mental and physi- 
cal vigor. Where the earth produces luxuries chieflv, men are 

12* 



136 THE GREAT WEST. 

feeble ; where its natural productions are the necessaries of life, 
men are robust. In the former grow the spices, in the latter the 
more useful fruits ; in the former the inhabitants are enervated by 
the juice of the orange and a burning sun, in the latter strength- 
ened by the cereal grain sand a bracing atmosphere ; in the former 
the climate indisposes to labor, in the latter it invites to toil, which 
in its turn rewards its votaries with health, energy, and riches. 
This fairest portion of the globe, unequalled in its situation and 
capabilities, has been left by Omnipotence to repose in the sim- 
plicity of nature and acquire fertility since its creation, that in 
this last age of the world it might be a fit theatre for developing 
the highest capacities of man. 

3. Its Resources. — The grand superficial feature of this valley 
is a plain or prairie, nearly level, thirteen hundred millions of 
square miles in extent, and, as far as yet cultivated, of surpassing 
fertility. The most lively imagination is confused in contempla- 
ting the future resources of such a field. 

With a territory as large as China, it possesses the means of 
sustaining even a greater population. Even where a partial cul- 
tivation has been in progress for forty years on its eastern borders, 
there is already a complaint that no market can be found for the 
abundant overplus of its products. What adequate judgment, 
then, can be formed of the extent of its products and resources, 
when the energy of human labor, aided by the surprising and in- 
creasing improvements of enlightened science, shall be employed 
on its whole surface ? There is an apparent hinderance to its ad- 
vancement in the shallowness of its rivers. With twenty thou- 
sand miles of navigable waters, none of them can be depended on 
at all seasons for the purposes of commerce except one thousand 
miles of the main trunk — the Mississippi below the Ohio. But 
this impediment will no doubt lead to the adoption of other and 
more speedy modes of communication over its surface. The won- 
derful discoveries of the age are coming to the aid of the pioneers 
in the great enterprise of peopling -the valley. The triumphs of 
art will more than overbalance the deficiencies of nature. Steam 
power is rapidly revolutionizing the world in more respects than 
one, and there is no other field so favorably situated for the devel- 
opment of its capabilities as the great valley. Steam will drive 
its iron engines over every portion. The iron mountains of Mis- 
souri, so centrally located, will radiate railroads in every direction 
over its level and undulating surface. Individuals now living will 
go from Pittsburgh to the Rocky mountains in as short a time as 
their fathers went from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia. The mount- 
ain barriers on either side of this valley must give way to the 
progress of population, of commerce, and of wealth, and open 
channels of communication with the neighboring oceans, and 
through them round the world. The greatest amount of its re- 



THE GREAT WEST. 137 

sources will consist of agricultural productions while its territory 
is in progress of being brought under cultivation; after which 
its unknown mineral riches will be developed. Inexhaustible 
quantities of the most useful minerals — iron, lead, copper, coal, 
salt — abound in its bosom, and only await the progress of popula- 
tion to add their amount to the immense aggregate of its resources. 
We believe, also, it has the negative advantage — perhaps the 
greatest of all — of being free from the curse of gold and silver 
mines. Labor, immeasurable labor, must subdue the great west 
and make it a garden : if moral power goes along with it, and 
keeps the ascendency, there will in future times be also a reward 
of labor, in the intelligence and happiness of its millions, such as 
the world never saw. 

With all these advantages— of position, of almost limitless 
extent, of unequalled climate, of unbounded physical resources 
and elements of power and greatness — a more important question 
arises : What will be the character of the two hundred millions 
of people destined to inhabit this valley within a century ? Its 
influence upon the world must be prodigious, not only in view of 
its vast extent and population, but in the ability of that population 
to appropriate and carry along with them every improvement in 
science, and art, and knowledge, which the wisdom and genius 
of man has devised. Other great nations, both of ancient and 
modern times, have passed through a long infancy of weakness 
and ignorance ; this is springing into being with the full strength 
and vigor of mature growth. It has not only all the experience 
of the past for a guide, but it has of itself, in a single age, super- 
added a degree of intelligence of which the past never dreamed. 
What then, we ask. will be the character of the multitudes inhab- 
iting this valley. When an infinite maze of railroads shall bind it 
in the bonds of brotherhood, and the touch of a finger on the tele- 
graph wires shall send a thrill of excitement through its vast do- 
main and simultaneously touch every heart of its countless mill- 
ions ? We can not answer this question — man can not answer it. 
Imagination is lost and bewildered in the prospect. Swelling 
words would detract from the grandeur of thought in contempla- 
ting it. We can only repeat the simple but expressive language 
of another: " We live in a great age." What another age will 
develop, God knows — not man. 

But we may make a few passing observations. Nature and 
Providence intended this valley to form one great nation. There 
are no great ranges uf mountains to form national barriers. The 
variety of climate is just sufficient to produce an active commerce, 
by the interchange of commodities : the north will require the 
sugar and cotton and sunny fruits of the south : the south, the 
corn and cattle and hardy fruits of the north. The feasibility of 
constructing railroads over almost its entire surface, will be a 



138 THE GREAT WEST. 

means of promoting union by diffusing intelligence universally, 
and thus merging all sectional differences into the common good, 
just as its multitude of rivers from numberless and distant foun- 
tains flow to a common centre and mingle their streams in the 
" father of waters." But it is a cheering thought, and one of 
which every true American is entitled to be proud, that this val- 
ley will have a common language, and enter upon its career with 
free institutions of the broadest basis in politics and religion. 
The hand of Infinite Wisdom is in this. Had different nations 
established themselves firmly in different sections of the valley, 
with dissimilar languages, laws, and religions, the elements of 
discord, of national antipathy and jealousy, might have been per- 
petuated to the latest times : or had the vast capabilities of this 
valley been understood at an earlier age, and the flood of foreign 
immigration had poured into it, before the American Union had 
acquired a degree of power and stability to shape and control its 
future progress, how different might have been its destiny. As 
it is, although at no distant day the valley will give law to the 
old states, it is a source of high gratulation that these states gave 
it birth, and guided it up to manhood before resigning to it the 
reins of power. Whatever may be its final destiny, the impulse 
given to its early age by parental training and example must be 
felt in its future history for succeeding ages. The English lan- 
guage, and free institutions improved upon English models, must 
here have their mightiest triumph. Knowledge is impeded among 
other great nations by differences of language : in this valley al- 
though slightly varying dialects will abound, the parent English 
must ever retain its ascendency, and like its ^nm Mississippi re- 
ceiverand absorb all other streams as tributa _.-*• and roll onward 
its unbroken flood. 

[C7 3 We purpose at present only to make a few dots on the 
map of the great west, showing briefly what has been done at a 
few points within a given time, leaving the imagination to fore- 
shadow the future. 

New Orleans is destined to be the great city of America, and 
probably of the world. Which will be the great city of the in- 
terior in a future age, it is impossible to predict with certainty. 
The race will be a long one between Cincinnati and St. Louis ; 
but judging from local causes the latter must finally have the pre- 
eminence. And yet it is very unsafe to judge of the future by 
the experience of the past. An infinite net-work of railroads 
over the west may at a future day carry the seat of empire to a 
very different position from where nature designed it. Steam is 
a great leveler ; its cutting down hills and filling up valleys fore- 
shows the influence it is designed to exert hereafter upon society, 
as well as upon the earth : and one happy effect it will have 
upon the great valley will doubtless be, to diffuse and equalize, 



\ THE GREAT WEST. 139 

and not to centralize, the power and wealth and blessings of the 
giant people destined to inhabit it. 

Commerce of the Mississippi. — Steamboat navigation com- 
menced there in 1817— thirty years ago. Previous to that time, 
the commerce up stream from New Orleans was carried on in 
about twenty barges of 100 tons each, and making one trip a year. 
(The voyage from New Orleans to Pittsburg is now performed in 
ten to fifteen days — nearly 2,000 miles.) There were also 150 
keel-boats, of 30* tons each, between Pittsburgh and Louisville, 
making a trip in two months, or three in a season. The whole 
ascending tonnage was about 6,500 tons. 

In 1834, there were 230 steamboats, of 39,000 tons. In 1842, 
450 boats, 126,000 tons. In 1843, there were built 126 steam- 
boats of 26,780 tons. In 1846, 108 boats were built, tonnage 
21,360, cost $1,400,000. At that time there were estimated to be 
750 steamboats running, of 160,000 tons, which cost $12,000,000. 
A single large one of these 750 boats would have taken all the 
produce of the western rivers to New Orleans, which arrived 
there in one year, forty years ago. Besides these steamboats, 
there are from 4,000 to 5,000 flat-boats, which float down the 
rivers, carrying produce to New Orleans. It is stated that the 
amount of produce arriving at New Orleans is nearly one hun- 
dred millions of dollars annually, and constantly increasing: and 
that the commerce on all the western rivers amounts to three 
hundred millions of dollars. What, then, will it be when the 
valley shall be densely populated ? What outlet can be found for 
its surplus commodities, what inlet for its importations ? The 
great Mississippi will be burdened with commerce, the northern 
lakes will be rilled, and still new avenues will be wanted. 

St. Louis. — This city is 20 miles by water below the mouth of 
the Missouri, 196 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, 1150 miles 
above New Orleans, and about 600 miles in a direct line from 
Washington. These cities, St. Louis and Washington, and also 
Cincinnati, are all very nearly on the same parallel of latitude, 
viz., 39 degrees. The population in 1810 was 1600 ; in 1820, 
4,598; in 1830, 6,694; in 1840, 16,496; in 1846, over 30,000. 
The trade of the city is carried on by 213 steamboats of 42,922 
tons, beside flat and keel boats. The steamboat arrivals in 1845, 
were 2,050. Among the imports in 1845, were 6,180 casks and 
94,274 lbs. (in bulk) of bacon ; 107,927 bushels of corn ; 139,282 
barrels of flour ; 971,025 bushels of wheat ; 11,564 hogsheads of 
tobacco ; 52,305 boxes and bales of dry goods ; 750,879 pigs of 
lead ; 70,000 hides ; 25,205 skins. 

Cincinnati. — The progress of this city may be fairly judged 
by the number of buildings erected for twelve years, viz. : — 



140 THE GREAT WEST. 



Year. 


Buildings. 


Year. 


Buildings. 


Year. 


Buildings. 


1833 


- - 321 


1837 • 


• - 305 


1841 • 


■ - 806 


1834 


- - 300 


1838 ■ 


• - 334 


1842 - 


852 


1835 


- - 340 


1839 


• - 394 


1843 • 


■ - 1,003 


1836 


- - 360 


1840 ■ 


■ - 405 


1844 ■ 


- 1,228 



In 1830, 35,000,000 of bricks were made ; in 1844, 80,000,000. 

The increase of its population and business for the last two or 
three years, has no doubt continued in the same proportion, but 
we are not able to give the facts, and do not wish to publish state- 
meats which can not be relied on. The causes which have pro- 
duced such a rapid growth will no doubt continue to operate for a 
long time to come. These are, a central position for receiving 
the products of a vast region of unbounded fertility, and the open- 
ing of channels of communication to draw the trade to this point. 

Cincinnati is pre-eminent at present for pork and strawberries. 
In 1844, 240,000 hogs were slaughtered here, brought from all 
parts of the adjoining states. During the strawberry season, 100 
bushels are sold in the markets per day. One cultivator has 
brought 4,000 quarts to market in a single day. The price varies 
from five to ten cents per quart. 

In addition to these, it is fast becoming famous for wine and 
pomological fruits. Vineyards are every year being extended on 
the banks of the Ohio, and orchards multiplied in every section 
of the valley. The city must eventually become the largest mart 
in America for fruits and wines. Cincinnati is already estimated 
to contain 70,000 inhabitants : fifty years ago it was a wilderness. 

We regret that we are unable for want of materials, to give 
some definite statistics of Pittsburgh, showing its growth and the 
increase of manufactures. It is already a city of the first class 
in the great valley, and from its position at the most eligible point 
of communication between the east and west, it must always be 
a place of flourishing trade. Add to this the facilities it enjoys in 
its mountains of iron, wood, and coal, for manufacturing purpo- 
ses, and thus furnishing the whole west, at the cheapest rate, 
with the necessary articles for developing its vast resources, and 
we know not what limits can be set to its future destiny. 

Commerce of the Lakes. — Intimately connected with the west- 
ern valley are the northern lakes, as a large share of its produce 
finds an outlet through that channel — a direction which it will 
probably always take. 

In 1819, there was but one steamboat on the lakes. 

In 1827, the first boat reached Lake Michigan. 

In 1832, the first boat reached Chicago. 

In 1833, there were 11 boats on the lakes, which cost $360,000. 

In 1840, there were 40 boats, which cost $2,200,000 ; and their 
earnings were $750,523, or more than 30 per cent, on their cost. 



THE GREAT WEST. 141 

In 1845, there were upon the upper lakes 60 boats of 23,000 
tons, and 320 sailing vessels, costing $4,600,000 ; some of the 
steamboats being of 1,200 tons. 

The commerce of Buffalo, in 1845, amounted to $33,000,000 ; 
and of all the lake ports, to $70,000,000. The steamboats leaving 
Buffalo in 1845 carried 97,736 passengers, independent of sailing 
vessels. 

Import and Export Trade of the Lakes. — In 1836, the imports 
were $2,324,248 ; exports, $14,137,026, In 1841, the imports 
were $33,483,441 ; exports, $32,432,581. 

Increase of Trade in Buffalo. — There were received, in 1835, 
86,233 barrels of flour, and 98,071 bushels of wheat ; in 1846, 
1,324,529 barrels of flour, and 4,744,184 bushels of wheat. 

In 1835, there were received 14,579 bushels corn, and 1,030,632 
pounds of butter ; in 1846, 1,455,258 bushels corn, and 12,692,071 
pounds of butter. 

In 1835, the amount of produce forwarded was $3,286,128 ; in 
1846, $15,014,316— making 49,478 tons in 1835, and 400,045 tons 
in 1846. 

The increase of shipping, great as it is, does not keep pace 
with the increase of trade and population. In both 1845 and 
1846, the lake tonnage was not sufficient to bring away the great 
quantity of wheat stored in the western ports. 



The two following statements relative to western farming, will 
show the cause of all this increase in western navigation, and the 
prodigious amount of western commerce : — 

1. Estimate of Farming in. Wisconsin. 

Cost of 200 acres of prairie, at $1.25 per acre $250 

Fencing, $400 ; breaking up, $480 880 

Seed, $160 ; harvesting and thrashing, $400 560 

1,690 
Product, 22 bushels per acre, at 55 cents 2,200 

Difference 510 

After the first year, the farm being fenced and the land subdued, 
a crop of 3,500 bushels can be raised at a cost of less than $1,000. 

2. Farming in Indiana. 
[From the Hon. H. L. Ellsworth's communication in the last Patent-Office Report.] 

I was offered 16 bushels of corn as rent per acre, instead of one 
third of the crop, which is the usual share for the landlord. I 



142 THE GREAT WEST. 

preferred, however, the one third, and got 20 bushels, the season 
being very favorable, and the land yielding 60 bushels and some 
as high as 80 bushels per acre ; 50 bushels is a good crop, and 
when the hazards of the season are considered, 16 bushels per 
acre may be called a good rent. With this conviction 1 have 
rented 1,000 acres of ground for 16,000 bushels of shelled corn 
delivered in the crib. 

A sod crop is raised as follows : when breaking up the prairie 
sod, corn is dropped in every third or fourth furrow, close to the 
right or outer side, and is covered by the next furrow. It springs 
up and grows, no hoeing is needed, and frequently a crop of 30 
to 60 bushels is produced. If put in early, this crop will come 
off in season to harrow in a crop of wheat, which is done with- 
out any further ploughing. 

While corn is so easily raised, it may be asked, What is its 
value ? At present (January 1, 1846), the price at Lafayette [In- 
diana, on the Wabash, about midway between Cincinnati and 
Chicago] is about 20 to 25 cents for exportation to New York, by 
the lakes and canals, or to New Orleans by the Ohio and Missis- 
sippi. But most of it is consumed in fattening hogs and cattle as 
follows: in the mode of feeding corn there is a diversity of prac- 
tice ; some graziers turn both cattle and hogs into the field of 
corn to consume what they wish. The fat cattle and fat hogs are 
first admitted, and follow each other ; then the store cattle and 
store hogs. Hogs will not pull down corn faster than they wish 
to eat it. Cattle do more injury, yet the hungry hogs will glean 
up most that falls on the ground. I have serious doubts which is 
the most advisable mode, whether to cut up the corn and feed it 
to stock in pens, or to let them consume it in the field where it 
grows. The usual mode, however, is to cut up the corn, stack it, 
and feed it out. I have been able to hire land with a corn crop 
on it at $2.50 to $3 per acre, the average yield being 50 bushels. 
The cost per bushel standing in the field is about five or six cents 
only, exclusive of the rent of the land. Several farmers have 
fattened the last summer as many as 1 ,500 hogs, and made most 
excellent pork. One and two hundred are considered an ordinary 
number. Hogs are usually killed at about 18 months old, and 
weigh from 200 to 300 pounds. 

It may be asked if this rich soil will not soon be exhausted. 
Large fields have been cultivated for 16 years and yielded 50 
bushels per acre. There is, however, a gradual diminution of the 
quantity, and hereafter the farmers will be willing to save manure 
which is now thrown away. I was surprised to find hundreds 
of loads carted, at an expense of 12^ to 20 cents, and thrown into 
the river to get it out of the way. 



THE GREAT WEST. 143 

Account of Transportation of 1293 bushels of Corn from Ful- 
ton County, Illinois, and Sale in Boston, 

SALES. 

411 sacks (at auction), 1,055 bushels, at 55 cents $580.25 

50 sacks (damaged), 128 bushels, at 37 J cents 48.00 

461 sacks (gunny-bags), at 6i cents 28.81 

$657.06 

CHARGES. 

Freight on Illinois river to St. Louis, 5 cents per bushel.. . . $64.65 

Forwarding charges at St. Louis 10.00 

Freight from St. Louis to New Orleans, steam, \2\ cts. bush. 161.62 

Forwarding at N. O., 1 ct. per bush., drayage and labor, 2 cts. 38.79 

461 sacks, at 12J cents; twine, $2 . ..." 59.62 

Insurance on Illinois and Mississippi rivers, $387, \\ per ct. 4.84 

Freight to Boston, 14 cts. per bush. ; primage, 5 per cent.. . 173.90 

Wharfage, £ ct. per bush., $5.91 ; labor and weighing, $6.95. 12.86 

State duty on auction sales, 1 per cent 6.33 

Marine insurance from New Orleans to Boston, lh per cent. 10.50 

Labor, advertising, postage, &c » 3 .72 

Commissions, 2J per cent, on $657.06 16.42 

$563.65 

The above sales are a fair average of prices, freight, and charges, 
in ordinary years. 

Corn is sold at 56 lbs. to a bushel in the western states ; 53 lbs. 
western corn is a bushel in Boston. 



' Legal Weights of Grains in Ohio. — Wheat, per bushel, 60 
lbs. ; corn, 56 lbs. ; barley, 48 lbs. ; oats, 39 lbs. ; rye, 56 lbs. ; 
flaxseed, 56 lbs. ; cloverseed, 64 lbs. 



Fruits, Nurseries, $c, at the West. — We have often thought 
in reading accounts of the progress of the western states, whether 
it would not be a profitable and useful speculation to go out there 
and establish nurseries. But we gave it up after reading the fol- 
lowing, which shows that our thoughts were entirely behind the 
age. The future prospect of fruit cultivation in the west is un- 
bounded. 

" Forty years ago, the population of Indiana did not exceed 
20,000. The first settlers carried with them the seeds of fruit- 
trees, and these were nearly all that the state produced until with- 
in the last ten years. Now look at the present enterprise on this 
subject, and the future prospect. During the past year [1844] 
there has been planted in this state, at least 100,000 apple-trees. 
Every year the demand increases, and our farmers are increasingly 
zealous in pear cultivation. A few years ago, to each 100 apple- 

XO 



144 THE GREAT WEST. 

trees, our nurseries sold perhaps two pear-trees ; now they sell at 
least 20 to 100. The demand for pear-trees this year has been 
such, that our nurseries have not been able to answer it — and they 
are swept almost entirely clean. Beside many mere neighbor- 
hood nurseries, there are in this state 18 which are large, and 
skilfully conducted. — Apple-trees not under ten feet high* sell at 
ten, and pears at twenty cents ; in some nurseries, apples may be 
had at six cents. During the season of 1843- '44, apples of the 
finest sorts sold at my door as late as April for 25 cents a bushel, 
and dull at that. The effects of such a deluge of fruit is worthy 
of some speculation. Fruit will become more generally an article, 
not of luxury, but of ordinary diet. A few years and the apple 
crop will be a matter of reckoning by farmers and speculators, 
just as is now, the potato crop — the wheat crop — the pork, &re. 
Nor will it create a home=market alone. By care it may be ex- 
ported with such facility, that the world will receive it as a part 
of its diet. The western states will before many years be forested 
with orchards. Nor if I inherit my threescore years and ten, do 
I expect to- die, until the apple crop of the United States shall 
surpass the potato crop in value. It is a permanent crop, not re- 
quiring annual planting, and it produces more bushels to the acre 
than corn, wheat, or on an average than potatoes. The pear and 
the apple are to hold a place yet, as universal eatables — a fruit 
grain, not known in their past history. Without planting 
another tree, this county (Marion) will in ten years produce two 
hundred thousand bushels of apples. Suppose the 90 counties of 
Indiana to have only 25 trees to 160 acres of land, the crop, of 15 
bushels to a tree, would be nearly two millions of bushels. 

" Strawberries are found in almost every garden, and of select 
sorts. We have a native white sort, which produces fruit of su- 
perior fragrance and flavor. The blackberry is introduced to the 
garden among us. I have a white blackberry. Assorted goose- 
berries and the new raspberries, Franconia and Fastolf, are find- 
ing their way into our gardens. I have a seedling rhubarb which 
last year produced stalks without cultivation, weighing from 18 
to 20 ounces. 

fin no department is there more decided advance among our 
citizens than in floriculture. In all our rising towns, yards and 
gardens are to be found choicely stocked. Ornamental shrubs are 
taken from our forests, or imported from abroad, in great variety. 
The rose is an especial favorite, The gardens of this town (In- 
dianapolis) would afford about sixty varieties of roses, which 
would be reckoned first rate in Boston or Philadelphia." — Rev. II. 
W. Beecher. 



THE ^JtEAT WEST. 



145 



Distances on Western Rivers, c$c 



I. OHIO RIVER. 

From Pittsburgh to— 

Miles. 

Steubenville 72 

Wheeling 95 

Marietta 183 

Parkersburg 196 

Point Pleasant 292 

Guyandotte 311 

Portsmouth ^ 358 

Maysville 412 

Cincinnati 474 

Lawrenceburg 496 

Madison 582 

Louisville 627 

Evansville , 814 

Smithland 944 

Mouth of Ohio 981 

II. — UPPER MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

From Falls of St. Anthony to — 

Fort Snelling 7 

Lake Pepin 66 

Prairie du Chien 228 

Dubuque 278 

Bloomington 426 

Burlington 481 

Quincy 562 

Illinois river 662 

Alton 683 

St. Louis 703 

St. Genevieve 762 

Mouth of Ohio 875 

III. — MISSOURI RIVER. 

From Council Bluffs to — 

Fort Leavenworth 258 

From Fort Leavenworth to — 

Kansas river . . 46 

Independence 58 

Libertv Landing , ... 61 

Boonville . . 219 

Jefferson City 273 

Osage river 282 

St. Charles 381 

Mouth of Missouri 402 

Mouth of Ohio 592 



IV.— ILLINOIS RIVER. 

iFrom Utica to— 

Miles 

Ottawa 10 

Peru 15 

Hennepin 30 

Peoria 75 

Pekin 84 

Havanna 115 

Beardstown 148 

Meredosia 164 

Mouth of Illinois 212 

Mouth of Ohio 425 

V. WABASH RIVER. 

From Loeansport to — 

Delphi". ... 34 

Lafayette 51 

Terre Haute. 161 

Vincennes 273 

Mount Carmel 318 

New Harmonv 378 

Mouth of Wabash 394 

Mouth of Ohio 534 

VI. MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 

From mouth of Ohio to — 

Mill's Point 42 

New Madrid 63 

Memphis 243 

Helena 285 

Vicksburg 65 1 

Grand Gulf. 708 

Natchez 768 

Fort Adams * 822 

Baton Rouge 925 

New Orleans 1,059 

Mouth of Mississippi 1,163 

VII. NEW YORK TO OREGON. 

From New York to — 

Pittsburgh (nearly) 400 

Independence, Missouri. . . 1,700 

Fort Laramie 2,450 

Fort Hall 3,000 

Fort Wallawalla 3,450 

Fort Vancouver 3,700 



Note. — Distances between places can be found by subtracting. 



146 MISCELLANf. 



CHAPTER X. 

MISCELLANY. 
DOMESTIC OR HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY. 

It is said the eccentric and gifted John Randolph once jumped 
up from his seat in Congress and exclaimed: "Mr. Speaker, I 
have found the philosopher's stone. It is this : Pay as you go" 

This is the first great lesson in domestic economy, and almost 
equally applicable to every pursuit in life and to every individual. 
Experience is decisive, that every kind of business is uncertain in 
its results which depends. upon borrowing. This is strikingly true 
of merchandising. It is stated as the result of repeated and care- 
ful investigation on the subject, that nine tenths of the merchants 
in New York have failed ; that is, not more than one in ten of 
the whole number who commence business as merchants, sustain 
themselves throughout mercantile life, and leave it in good credit, 
although a large proportion of them begin with a capital in ready 
money. This affords not very flattering encouragement for en- 
gaging in such an occupation ; and yet how large a number of 
young men are seeking employment in it. The above statement 
also forces another reflection into the mind, viz. : a doubt whether 
it is not always morally wrong to get in debt, except to relieve 
present and unforeseen distress or calamity ? This query intro- 
duces a subject of great interest, and worthy of serious inves- 
tigation. We must leave it to the reflection of the reader. 

The system or practice of giving and taking credit, so exten- 
sively practised in our country heretofore, has been greatly preju- 
dicial ta good morals, as well as to a sound, healthy state of busi- 
ness. 

It has fostered a spirit of ruinous speculation. 

It has kept the public mind in a state of feverish excitement. 

It has extensively cherished and strengthened a disposition to 
despise manual labor. 

Thousands of young men become vagabonds or genteel row- 
dies, by idling away the best years of life without useful employ- 
ment, in the expectation of jumping into a fortune, or obtaining a 
lucrative situation. Beware, parents ! the price paid for the char- 
acter and station of gentility is sometimes enormous, infinitely out 
of proportion to its value. But the worst consequence of this state 



MISCELLANY. 147 

of excitement is, that when the reaction comes— as come it al- 
ways will — its withering effects fall heaviest upon the poorer 
classes. When money is plenty and circulates freely ; when bu- 
siness is flourishing, and speculation on the increase, labor also is 
in constant demand, wages rising, and the laborer (living almost 
always to the full extent of his income] is able to obtain some 
luxuries, and where credit is unbounded all around him, feels per- 
haps a disposition to make a fortune at once, and be a gentleman 
like his employers. The fever is contagious, and the whole of 
society is affected. Everybody is going to be as rich as the milk- 
maid in the fable. Poverty, and toil, and distress, are about to be 
banished from every man's particular door, and must consequently 
leave the neighborhood. But God, in his mercy, generally disap- 
points men in their hopes of a money paradise. In the midst of 
this apparent universal prosperity, the reaction comes in a mo- 
ment, and with overwhelming force. Speculators fail to meet 
their engagements, merchants are protested, manufacturers stop 
work, banks stop payment, confidence is lost between man and 
man : the consequence is, the importer must send ready pay for 
his foreign goods ; the wholesale merchant exacts cash or securi- 
ty of the retailer ; and the latter, who has before suffered severely 
by giving almost unlimited credit, demands pay down. Now, 
what is the condition of the laboring classes in this state of 
things ? Being dependent on the wages of labor for subsistence, 
their distress now exceeds their former happiness, for all busi- 
ness is paralyzed, and they can not find employment. 

Such was the inflation of business, and such the consequent re- 
action and prostration of the country, in the memorable year 1837, 
from which society has not yet fully recovered. But one effect 
of this great revulsion and long-continued depression in the money 
affairs of the country has been, a radical change in the mode of 
doing business. The credit system is greatly curtailed — to a great 
extent abolished. The consumer who is not known to be a prompt 
paymaster is refused credit. " Terms cash," stare you in the 
face on entering a store or mechanic's shop. The sudden adop- 
tion of this system bears with great severity upon the laboring 
classes. It will be better for them in the long run, provided they 
will rigidly live up to its rules, reject ^all superfluities, and buy 
nothing without pay in hand ; otherwise its tendency will be to 
convert large numbers of laborers into paupers. If the rule of 
cash payments be generally adopted, It will materially reduce the 
price of goods, and probably also the wages of labor. One thing 
however is apparent, viz., that men of capital are becoming more 
cautious in their speculations and investments, and in their trans*? 
actions with irresponsible customers ; and we are no doubt grad- 
ually but surely approximating to the European system of trade, 
in which credit to the poor man is nearly out of the question— 

13* 



148 



MISCELLANY. 



unknown — and his only alternatives are, labor (if he can get it), 
crime, the poorhouse, or starvation. 

The only way to counteract this change in business, to avoid 
its evil effects, and make it the best system, is, for every one to 
resolve, and especially the laboring classes, to live within his in- 
come — and the farther within the better ; to adopt and rigidly 
practise the rule, "Pay as you go." 

Adopt this system, and " hard times" will not trouble you. 
Such times, if they come, will be the easiest, for they always de- 
press the market and make provisions and merchandise cheaper. 

Let speculation alone. In addition to its hazard, it is often 
liable to the charge of dishonesty. Can any business transaction 
be morally honest, in which a fair equivalent is not reciprocal ? 

Persevere in the business in which you were educated. Perse- 
verance will remove mountains. Don't mind a dark day. Remem- 
ber, however thick and heavy the clouds are around, there is light 
above them. Look-up, and persevere. Frequent change is an in- 
veterate enemy to success in life. 

Do not meddle with that which you are not acquainted with. 

Buy nothing useless. 

Never get in debt, as long as you can work. 

Spend all your money, if in want, and then wait a week be- 
fore beginning on your credit. 

When you have earned a dollar, always lav by a quarter, or a 
half. 

Keep an account of every day's wages, of every day idle, and 
of every expenditure : read it over the last day of every week, and 
month. 

To show the difference between cash and credit in necessary 
family expenses, the following table is inserted. The one is an 
account kept by the buyer as the goods were bought and paid for ; 
the other is taken from merchants' bills : — 



For Cash. 




On Credit. 




1 barrel of flour - - 


- $6.00 


25 lbs. flour 4 times at 4 cts. 


$4.00 


1 gallon of vinegar - 


20 


1 gallon vinegar - - - 


25 


8 lbs. brown sugar - 


56 


8 lbs. brown sugar - - - 


64 


1 whitewash brush - 


44 


1 whitewash brush - - 


50 


1 pair boy's shoes 


- 1.00 


1 pair boy's shoes - - - 


1.12 


4 lbs. coffee, 12J cents 


50 


4 lbs. coffee 


56 


5 lbs. candles - - - 


50 


5 lbs. candles - - - - 


70 


8 yards white cotton - 


56 


8 yards white cotton - - 


64 


& lb. hyson tea - - - 


44 


| lb. hyson tea - - - - 


50 


7 lbs. dried beef - - 


56 


7 lbs. dried beef - - - 


70 


2 pecks fine salt - - 


30 


4 qts. salt 4 times at 3 cts. 


48 


& cord of wood - - 


- 2.00 


£ cord of wood - - - - 


2.50 


2 pecks meal - - - 


50 


4 qts. meal 4 times, 19 cts. 


76 



MISCELLANY. 



149 



For Cash. 

6 lbs. soap $0.42 

25 lbs. butter, 12 cts. - - 3.00 
1 broom ------ 20 

6 boxes of matches - - 6 



Cost for cash - 



17.24 



On Credit. 
6 lbs. soap - - - - 
25 lbs. butter - - - 
1 broom - - - - - 
6 boxes of matches 



|0.48 

3.75 

25 

12 



25 lbs. flour 4 times, 4 cts. 4.00 



Cost on credit - 
Cost for cash - 

In favor of cash 



- 21.95 

- 17.24 

- 4,71 



The above is a very moderate estimate of the difference between 
being confined to a running account, and having the range of the 
market with ready money- If the practice of having things 
charged is also adopted with regard to fresh meats, fruits, and 
vegetables, in city markets, the difference will be found to be 
much greater. 

Indeed, so great is the difference between cash and credit in 
household economy, that if you have credit, you had better bor- 
row money at two per cent, per month, or four times the amount 
of legal interest, and make your purchases for cash, rather than 
carry your credit to the merchants. 

General Washington once remarked to his guests who were 
late to dinner : " Gentlemen, my cook never inquires if the com- 
pany have come, but whether the time has." 

This is the next most important lesson in househoM affairs or 
domestic economy. Irregularity and want of punctuality are de- 
structive to order ; and where there is no order there is chaos. 
This may be observed every day in visiting different, families. 
Where order prevails, and everything is done at its proper time, 
and everything kept in its proper place, there is a leisure hour for 
relaxation and rest, in the busiest families and workshops ; but 
where there is no system, no order, the rule practised, is, every 
place a place for everything ; housekeeper, children, and servants, 
are constantly at work, toiling all day like galley-slaves, and ly- 
ing down late at night, restless, weary, and exhausted, to rise late 
in the morning and pursue the same ceaseless round of confu ion 
and disorder. The work is never overtaken — never done. There 
are but few persons who do not sometimes observe and feel the 
slavery of such a course of life, but inveterate habit is harder to 
break than a chain of iron. The greatest disorder and irregular- 
ity may sometimes be seen in the houses of the rich, but much 
more generally among the poor. Ignorance is the fruitful moth- 
er of misfortune among the poor, and where she takes up her 
abode, her numerous progeny, negligence, penury, discord, improv- 
idence, generally dwell with her. So large an addition to the 



150 MISCELLANY. 

poor man's family imposes a grievous burden. A life of daily 
toil and homely fare is not always happy, but if to these are ad- 
ded disquietude, envy, and repining, it must be unhappy — proba- 
bly miserable. Can anything be done to relieve this picture of 
family disorder ? Little amendment can be expected in adults ; 
the children may be improved. Go through the forest and en- 
deavor to straighten the deformed and crooked trees of a hundred 
years' growth — so rigid and unpliable are the crooks in human 
character and disposition, grown stubborn by age. The only hope 
of a radical and effective improvement, is in the better education 
of females in humble life. Poverty in ignorance can no more 
change its own condition, than sin can regenerate itself, or mat- 
ter become self- animated. The stream can not rise above its 
fountain. Experience is conclusive, that in order to elevate or 
improve the condition of the humbler classes of society, they 
must be acted upon through the intervention of a class above 
them. We commend this suggestion and the cause of the poor 
in their ignorance and poverty, to the sympathies and patriotism 
of ladies in the higher walks of life ; those who "fare sumptuous- 
ly every day." Who maketh thee to differ ? 

" Order is heaven's first law." The exactness in the revolu- 
tions of times and seasons, is sufficient to teach reasoning men 
the value and importance of system and regularity. What would 
become of the world and its affairs, if the operations of nature 
were as irregular as those of a disordered household — if the sun 
should rise one morning at five o'clock, another at ten, and anoth- 
er at eight ? — if the winter should interchange with spring, and 
the summer with autumn ? There could be no regular business 
among men, no punctuality, no system ; everything would be 
left to chance, and everything to disorder, just as it is in a family 
who sometimes breakfast at five, seven, ten, and six o'clock. 

The general rules, " a time for everything," and "everything 
in its place," are not sufficient — every head of household affairs 
should have an hour fixed (varying with the seasons), for each 
duty or exercise, and enforce its observance by all the members, 
and in all departments of the family. 

PAPER-MONEY — HOW OUR FATHERS SUSTAINED THE REVOLUTION. 

The following remarks on early American history, are worthy of being re 
membered. In the strife and scramble for honors and wealth at the present 
day, and amid the wonderful improvements in the arts and conveniences of 
life, the great deeds and greater sacriiices of that age appear to be almost for- 
gotten. The present generation complain of hard times, heavy taxes, high 
prices, losses, and poverty. Let them read the following statement, and com- 
pare their circumstances with those of their grandfathers seventy years ago. 

On the commencement of the Revolution (1775), Congress 
had no money. The external commerce of the states being sup- 



MISCELLANY. 151 

pressed, the farmer could not sell his produce, and, of course, 
could not pay a tax. Congress had no resource then but in paper- 
money. Not being able to lay a tax for its redemption, they could 
only promise that taxes should be laid for that purpose, so as to 
redeem the bills (paper-money) by a certain day. This paper- 
money continued for a twelvemonth equal to gold and silver. But 
the quantity they were obliged to emit for the purposes of the 
war, exceeded the usual quantity of the circulating medium, and 
it began to depreciate. In two years it had fallen to two dollars 
of paper for one of silver ; in three years, to four for one ; in nine 
months more, to ten for one ; and in six months more (in Sept., 
1779) to twenty for one. 

Congress, alarmed at the depreciation, published an address to 
their constituents, renewing their original declaration, that this 
paper-money should be redeemed, dollar for dollar. They proved 
the ability of the states to do this, and their liberty would be 
cheaply bought at this price. The declaration was ineffectual. 
No man received the money at a better price ; on the contrary, 
in six months more (March, 1780), it had fallen to forty for one. 
Congress then tried another experiment. Considering their for- 
mer offers to redeem the money at par as relinquished by the gen- 
eral refusal to take it, except at the progressive depreciation, they 
required the whole to be brought in, declared it should be re- 
deemed at its present value of forty for one, by giving the holders 
new bills, of one fortieth the amount, equal to gold and silver. 
This effort was as unavailing as the former. Very little of the 
money was brought in. 

It continued to circulate and depreciate till the end of 1780, 
when it had fallen to seventy-five for one ; and the money put in 
circulation by the French army being by that time sensibly felt in 
all the states north of the Potomac, the paper ceased its circula- 
tion altogether in those states. In Virginia and North Carolina, 
it continued a year longer, when it had fallen to a thousand for 
one; and then expired, as it had in the other states, without a 
groan. Not a murmur was heard on this occasion, among the 
people. On the contrary, universal congratulations took place, 
and merriment and not despair, attended its final depreciation. 

The annihilation was so complete that barbers' shops were pa- 
pered with the bills in jest ; and sailors, paid off in bundles of this 
worthless money, had suits of clothes made of it, and turned 
their loss into a frolic, by parading through the streets in their 
decayed finery, which originally was estimated at thousands of 
dollars. 



153'- MISCELLANY. 

Amount, and Value in Gold, of Continental Money. 



Date. 


Sum emitted. 


Value in Gold. 


Date. 


Sum emitted. 


Value in Gold. 


1775. June 23 


$2,000,000 


$2,000,000 


1778. Sept. 5 


$5,000,000 


$1,000,000 


Nov. 29 


3,000,000 


3,000,000 


Sept. 26 


10,000,100 


2 T 000,020 


1776. Feb. 17 


4,000,000 


4,000,000 


Nov. 4 


10,000,100 


1,666,683 


Aug. 13 


5,000,000 


5,000,000 


Dec. 14 


10,000,100 


1,666,683 


1777. May 20 


5,000,000 


1,877,273 


1779. Jan'y 14 


24,447,620 


3,055,952 


Aug. 15 


1,000,000 


333,333 


Feb. 3 


5,000,160 


500,016 


Nov. 7 


1,000,000 


250,000 


Feb. 12 


5,000,160 


500,016 


Dec. 3 


1,000,000 


250,000 


April 2 


5,000,160 


294,127 


1778. Jan'y 8 


1,000,000 


250,000 


May 5 


10,000,100 


416,670 


Jan'y 22 


2,000.100 


500,000 


June 4 


10,000,100 


500,005 


Feb. 16 


2,000,000 


400,000 


July 17 


15,000,280 


750,014 


Mar. 5 


2,000,000 


400,000 


Sept 17 


15,000,260 


625,010 


April 4 


1,000,000 


166,666 


Oct. 14 


5,000,180 


166.672 


April 11 


5,000,000 


833,333 


Nov. 17 


10,050,540 


261,053 


April 18 


500,000 


83,333 


Nov. 29 


L0,000,140 


259,743 


May 22 


5.000,000 


1,000,000 












June 20 


5.000,000 


1,250,000 


Total . . 


200,000,000 


36,367,719 


July 30 


5,000,000 


1,111,111 









Thus it appears that the two hundred millions of^ollars emit- 
ted by Congress were worth to those who received them, but 
about thirty-six millions. The difference was lost on the paper- 
bills separately, by the successive holders of them. Every one 
through whose hands a bill passed, lost on that bill what it lost in 
value while it was in his hands. — Jefferson in Elliott, abridged. 

It is also estimated that the different states emitted an equal 
amount, two hundred millions of dollars of paper-money which 
suffered an equal depreciation, 

This will show an amount of three hundred and twenty-eight 
millions of dollars (omitting fractions) lost in the American Rev- 
olution by the depreciation of paper-money ; to which must be 
added the federal or national debt at the close of the war, esti- 
mated at forty-three millions ; and the state debts estimated at 
twenty-five millions ; and we can form some little idea of the 
sacrifices cheerfully submitted to, by the men of iron wills and 
determined purpose of that eventful age. The impulse which 
carried them through this eventful struggle was a determination 
to resist that power which claimed a right to bind them in all 
cases whatsoever. Such a race might be exterminated, but could 
never be enslaved. 

Have their sons degenerated ? On this subject we quote some 
remarks from a communication in the first number of the " Na- t 
tional Magazine." -"My recollection," says the writer, "goes' 
back pretty distinctly more than sixty years, and I can aver that 
crimes of as deep dye were committed in those days, as strike 
us with such horror when they now occur. But there did not 
exist then a legion of newspapers with agents in all directions. 



MISCELLANY. 153 

eager to collect, exaggerate, and publish ; and of course they 
were not circulated. The utmost extravagance of our times in 
speculation by corporations even, can he matched by individuals 
who lived fifty years ago." 

Speculations in land were extravagant. " Phelps and Gorham 
from the^ast, Morris, Nicholson, Greenleaf, Wilson, and others, 
in the middle states, acquired and held for a short time such vast 
possessions, that the debts of Nicholson, yet unliquidated, are 
said to amount to twelve millions of dollars. Barry and Law 
aimed at purchasing the whole city (site) of Washington in 
1798. Wilson gave a single bond (but one of his vast negotia- 
tions) for twelve hundred thousand dollars, bearing six per cent, 
interest. The immense loss by these speculators, all of whom 
failed, did not fall short perhaps of those by banks in our own 
times, and was inflicted upon a nation of less than five millions 
of inhabitants. Robert Morris (the illustrious patriot of the 
Revolution) spent four years in the debtor's prison in Philadel- 
phia ; and Wilson died in confinement for debt in North Carolina. 
Lotteries were then a universal expedient for raising money." 

" In politics, slow as we may be in believing it, there was, 
half a century ago, more violence, more marked separation in so- 
cial life, more virulent hatred — infinitely more than now. What 
aged man can forget the heart-burning and outrage before and 
during the days of the black cockade, when that badge was worn 
as the signal of defiance from one party to the other ! Burr in 
the senate and Hamilton in the cabinet agitated the whole nation 
by their violent jarring. Compare the riotous elections of those 
days between federalism and anti-federalism, with the quiet bal- 
lot of the great national election of 1844. 

"And how can we sufficiently congratulate ourselves on the 
improvement in temperance ? None can estimate its importance 
as well as the aged. Fifty years ago, it was no disgrace for 
voung men to visit a party of ladies stupified or elevated by wine. 
Male servants were generally given to drunkenness ; intoxication 
was threatening us with universal sway. 

" But it is in religion that the most impressive and salutary 
reformation has taken place. The churches, now numerous and 
filled with devout attendants, were then few in number and sadly 
neglected. At the Revolution, the superstition of witchcraft was 
only passing away, to be succeeded by religious indifference and 
rank infidelity," &c, &c. It may be some consolation to reflect, 
amid the immoralities of the present day, that our grandfathers 
were as bad, or a little worse, than we are. 

The closing remarks of this writer are worthy of being tran- 
scribed and remembered. 

" The cause for which the old continental money was put 
forth, had been gained. It prevented our subjugation, and placed 



154 



MISCELLANY. 



u^on the high eminence we now occupy. Those who bore its 
burden, bore it cheerfully, and made it the happy instrument of 
our national existence. In cherishing with filial affection the 
memory of those brave men, we may pass by their faults with 
indulgence ; always resolving to cling with constancy and love, 
to the privilege of self-government, which they thus won and 
transmitted." 



Pay of Members of Old Continental Congress. 

New Hampshire : Personal expenses ; also for servant and two 
horses, and half a guinea besides. 

Massachusetts : Personal expenses, as in New Hampshire, and 
two dollars a day. 

Connecticut : The same expenses, and three dollars a day. 

Rhode Island : Forty shillings a day — no expenses paid. 

New Jersey : Four dollars a day. 

Pennsylvania : Twenty shillings a day, and all expenses. 

Maryland : Forty shillings a day — no expenses. 

Virginia: A half Johannes a day. 

North Carolina : Five hundred pounds currency a year. 

South Carolina : Three hundred pounds for services during the 
first congress. 

Georgia : One hundred pounds a month during the session. 



PATENT OFFICE. 



Year. 



1840. 
1841. 
1842. 
1843. 
1844. 
1845. 
1846. 



Patents 


Number 


Receipts 


Expenses 


Applicants 


granted. 


expired. 


of Office. 


of Office. 


tor Patents. 


473 


321 


$38,056 


$23,982 


765 


495 


327 


40,403 


23,065 


847 


517 


352 


35,790 


23,154 


761 j 


545 


352 


35,790 


23,154 


761 


502 


539 


42,509 


36,344 


1,045 


502 


470 


42,853 


31,172 


1,246 


619 


473 


39,177 


33,700 


1,272 



Whole number of patents issued from the patent office, to January 7, 1847, 
15,145. 

The patent office in Washington is a great curiosity. It con- 
tains models of all patented inventions, and of a great many not 
patented ; making it a complete medley or storehouse of gim- 
cracks and nicknacks. These models are, or should be, perfect 
miniatures of the original inventions, and are of every variety of 
taste and workmanship, from a wooden plough, "whittled," per- 
haps, with a jack-knife, to a perfect steamboat, complete even to 



MISCELLANY. 155 

a screw, and costing a thousand dollars. There are great varie- 
ties of pocket canal-boats, and engines, and of portable railroads, 
magnificent bridges, and ships-of-war. But the most interesting 
thought, in surveying these specimens of human ingenuity and 
skill, is that of the wear and tear of mind which produced them. 
If every model could relate the thoughts which agitated the mind 
of its owner, while passing through his hands, what revelations 
should we have of alternating hopes and fears, of sleepless nights 
and restless days, of years of toil in *the depths of poverty, of 
castles built in the air, of racking pains, anxiety, and perplexity, 
of high expectations of fame and fortune dashed in a moment, 
and of persevering labor under the greatest discouragements: it 
would afford a lesson of instruction and of warning, which would 
make the most ingenious minds pause and reflect. How very few 
inventors have succeeded in their expectations ; what vast num- 
bers have entirely failed. How few inventions have contributed 
to the convenience or well-being of society ; how many have been 
rejected as useless. The application of steam to machinery is, 
perhaps, the greatest discovery of modern times, and one which 
is fast revolutionizing the world : and yet all the American pio- 
neers in this great undertaking died poor. The names of Fitch, 
and Rumsey, and Fulton, will be remembered as long as ships 
are propelled by steam ; but, like all men in advance of their age. 
they were reproached and laughed at as idle visionaries, and, after 
encountering the scoffs and neglect of a community incapable of 
appreciating their labors, or of sharing their perplexities and toils, 
all sunk down into early graves. 

To return to patents. If the following statement of the average 
value of inventions, from hi^h authority, should have the effect 
to make young inventors estimate their genius and capacity more 
justly, and to balance the probabilities of success more accurately, 
before devoting themselves to so harassing and uncertain a life, 
its publication will not be useless. The writer once asked a prin- 
cipal officer of the patent office, what proportion of the inventions 
offered for patents were really useful. After a moment's reflec- 
tion, he replied : " Eighty-five per cent, of the whole are worth- 
less." Poor encouragement for even an ingenious man, to spend 
his life in making experiments in science and the mechanic arts. 
At the above rate, about as many men become rich by their in- 
ventions, as by buying lottery-tickets. 



Cost of obtaining Patents, <SfC, in other Countries. 

Great Britain. — Patents must be obtained separately for Eng- 
land and Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The average ordinary 
cost is, for — 

14 



156 MISCELLANY. 

England and Wales £110 

Scotland 80 

Ireland - - 130 

320 
Deposite required 30 

Cost for, the three kingdoms - 350 

A specification costs £15, and £1 for every 1,080 words after the 
first 1,080. A patent, taken out in England, may include all the 
colonies and plantations abroad, at an extra expense of £7. The 
time of obtaining a patent is from four to six weeks. Patents are 
granted for fourteen years. 

France. —Patents are granted for five, ten, or fifteen years. 
The tax prescribed is five hundred francs for fifteen years, to be 
paid by annuities of one hundred francs each, under penalty of 
forfeiture for a year's default. Foreigners may obtain patents; 
but the duration of a patent, already patented abroad, can not ex- 
ceed that of the foreign patent. The writings and description of 
the patent must be in French. 

Austria. — -Inventions from abroad are confined to those already 
patented abroad, and to the term of the foreign patent, and can 
not exceed fifteen years, except by special grant. The cost or 
fees are ten guilders (forty-five cents each) each year for the first 
five years, and increasing five guilders each year afterward, so 
that the fifteenth year is sixty guilders, or for the whole fifteen 1 
years four hundred and twenty-five guilders ; the fee to be paid 
every year in advance. 

Prussia. — Patents granted for from six months to fifteen years. 
Expense about one hundred and fifty dollars. The patentee must 
put his patent into use within six months. 

Russia. — A foreign invention can not be patented for more 
than six years. The fee to be paid is sixty silver rubles (seventy- 
five cents each) for each year, making three hundred and sixty for 
the whole time. 

Belgium. — Patents are granted for ^.ve and ten years, and may 
be extended. Fee, for five years, one hundred and fifty florins (a 
florin is about forty cents) ; ten years, three or four hundred flor- 
ins ; fifteen years, six hundred or seven hundred and fifty florins. 
In introducing a foreign patent the articles fabricated must be 
made within the realm. The patent must be put into use within 
the time fixed by law. 

The patent laws of Holland are the same as in Belgium. 



LIGHTNING-RODS. 



The summer of 1845 was remarkable for the frequency and 
violence of thunder-storms throughout the United States, and for 
loss of life by lightning. It is therefore an inquiry of deep and 



MISCELLANY. 157 

general interest, to the community, whether protection from this 
destructive agent can be obtained by lightning-rods ; and if so, in 
what way. To meet this inquiry, we have compiled from differ- 
ent sources, the following simple and practical directions for 
their construction, position, and use. We have no room for a 
scientific essay on the electric fluid, nor is it necessary ; it is 
sufficient for our purpose to remark that the following directions 
are derived from the writings of scientific men, and that experi- 
ence has proved their correctness. Lightning-rods should be 
made of round bars or rods of iron of five eighths or three fourths 
of an inch diameter. It is desirable to have the lower end, in the 
ground and for a short distance above, of larger size, to allow for 
waste, from a greater liability to rust. The proper disposition of 
the two ends of the rod are of the greatest importance. It is 
stated by all scientific writers on the subject, that a lightning-rod 
can not be depended upon for safety, unless the lower end de- 
scends into the ground to the depth of permanent moisture. 
This in some soils and situations will be several feet. Whenever 
it can be done, it should terminate in a well, a spring, or run of 
water. If this can not be done, an old stove-plate, or oth£r cast- 
ing of iron, at the bottom for the end of the rod to stand on, will 
add to its security; and a few bushels of charcoal put into the 
hole before filling it up, will also be useful by its property of re- 
taining moisture. The upper part of the rod may be tapered 
from the building up to the end. The point should be made of 
gold or silver,' brought to a sharp point, and so made as to screw 
on, or fit into a socket in the iron rod. A blacksmith can forge 
two or three points out of a half-dollar. A sharp point is es- 
sential to a good rod, and the reason why a silver point is used, 
is because it will not rust and become blunt so soon as iron. One 
sharp point is as good as a fork of three or four points. 

The height of the point above the building is an important 
consideration. The rule is that a rod can not be depended upon 
for security for a distance greater than twice its height ; that is, 
a rod extending ten feet above the building will protect, ordinari- 
ly, a space of twenty feet in every direction. An instance is 
mentioned of lightning striking a roof midway between two rods, 
which were on or near the ends of the building about fifty feet 
apart, and elevated only seven feet above it. These rods should, 
each, have been twice as high. A rod should be on the highest 
point of a building or object it is intended to protect. The pro- 
tection of a rod is very precarious, if the house or building to 
which it is attached is overhung with tall trees. 

A rod should, if practicable, be welded into one piece. When 
this can not be done, a socket or a split should be made in the 
lower piece, and the upper made to fit into it nicely, and both 
keyed together. The common practice of joining by hooks and 



158 MISCELLANY. 

eyes is not so safe. It is much better to fasten the rod to the 
building with blocks of wood nailed to the walls, than to use iron 
hooks or staples for the purpose. Where iron is to be used, the 
neck of a bottle or a piece of horn to enclose the rod where it 
passes through the staple, will add much to the security. These 
few particulars are all that are necessary to secure the greatest 
protection — and they are all-important. Make the rod one con- 
tinued whole ; sink it deep into the earth ; elevate it above all 
near objects ; and furnish it with a perfect point. 



RAILROADS. 

We have a large mass of information on the subject of rail- 
roads, and intended to publish as complete a list as could be made, 
exhibiting their length, cost, income, &c. But such a list would 
at the best be incomplete while these roads are being extended so 
rapidly ; beside, it is judged that a bare statement of figures would 
be of little practical utility, without a map to show their relative 
position. We have therefore concluded to defer publishing any 
table of railroads in detail until we can also exhibit them as they 
appear on the face of the country. 

The following statement shows in round numbers the length 
and cost of railroads in operation, January 1, 1847. 

Miles. Cost. 

In New England - - 1,013 - - - $33,553,710 
In New York - 734 - 18,453,787 

In other states - - 3,125 - . - - 72,535,798 



Total in the United States 4,872 - - - $124,543,295 
In Great Britain - - 2,419 - - - 423,325,000 
In other European nations 8,683 - - - 1,128,790,000 

The rapid extension of railroads is a remarkable feature in the 
enterprise of the present day. Their utility has also been 
abundantly tested, and the facilities they afford for the speedy and 
cheap transportation of goods and passengers constitute one of 
the wonders of the age. If a man had predicted even 20 years 
ago that flour would ever be transported by land from Albany to 
Boston, 200 miles, for 30 cents per barrel, he would have been 
considered a visionary. But it is now done every day. — Then 
their speed. A passenger may now travel from Boston to Wash- 
ington in less than 30 hoars running time, and will soon be able 
to go to New Orleans in four or five days. When the great west- 
ern chain is completed from Buffalo around Lake Erie, across 
Michigan, around the lake to Chicago and thence through Illinois, 
Boston will be within four days' travel of the Mississippi — perhaps 
three. Another great advantage of railroads is their usefulness 



MISCELLANY. 159 

at all seasons. Heretofore the transportation of goods into and 
from the interior has been crowded into the warm season, when 
the canals are open and the roads in order. The railroad, always 
available, will give the farmer and merchant facilities of commu- 
nication with the seaports at all times, and consequently the ad- 
vantage of the best markets. 

The enhancement in the value of fast property, houses and 
lands, in the vicinity of railroads affords the surest evidence of 
their utility, and must follow their construction everywhere. 
The rapid and cheap transportation of bulky and perishable arti- 
cles is mutually advantageous to city and country. Boston and 
New York are now furnished with milk and summer fruits, and 
vegetables from the far interior. Timber-lands worth $4 per 
acre, are, by the making of a railroad near them, increased four- 
fold in value. Trees are now taken from the hills of New Hamp- 
shire, and carried by railroads to the sea, and thence shipped to be 
used in making railroads in Cuba. It is stated on high authority 
that a railroad running through Ohio and Indiana, .and terminating 
at Baltimore, would add 25 to 50 per cent, to the value of every 
farm within 50 miles of it. "It is capable of demonstration that 
the people of Ohio and Indiana lose every year, for the want of a 
winter market for their produce, enough to build 50 or 75 miles 
of such a road." 

But the greatest triumph of railroads will be in opening ample facilities for 
pouring out the riches of the western states upon the seaboard. The high 
price oi grain for the last twelve months has shown that the west has always 
an abundance, and only requires such an increase of price as will leave a 
balance over expenses to supply any demand. In seasons when prices are 
low, corn is not worth moving from the interior of Michigan, Indiana, and 
Illinois, and what the hogs can not consume (sometimes thousands of acres) 
is left standing all winter where it grew j but when the price of flour in New 
York exceeds $5 per barrel, and corn 60 cents per bushel as will be seen by 
the items hereafter) the current begins to move from the interior toward the 
seaports and becomes stronger and deeper as the prices advance : as the fol- 
lowing comparison between the produce arriving at tide-water, via the Erie 
canal for the years ending August 7th, 1846 and 1847, will show. In the for- 
mer year prices were low and in the latter high. 
Year. Bushels Wheat. Barrels Flour. Bushels Corn. 

1846 - - 1,347,926 - - 650,212 • - 843,975 

1847 • - 2,109,679 - - 2,328,473 - - 3,931,345 



Increase • - 761,753 - - 1,678,261 - - 3,087,370 

The exportation of grain from the United States to Great Britain and Ire- 
land, for the year ending June 30, 1846, and the year ending September 1, 
1847, was as follows: — 

Year. Bushels Wheat. Barrels Flour. Bushels Corn. Bbls. Corn-meal, 

1846 - - 1,613,795 - - 2,289,476 - - 1,826,068 - - 298,790 

1847 - - 4,015,134 - - 3,150,689 - - 17,298,744 - - 847,280 



Increase - 2,401.339 - - 861,213 - - 15,472,676 - - 548,490 
Making an increase of value of at least $23,000,000. 

14* 



160 MISCELLANY. 

Fifty cents a bushel for wheat in the interior of Michigan is said to be about 
equal to $1.02 per bushel, or $5 per barrel, for flour in New York, and these 
prices are considered as affording a fair living profit to the farmer. This will 
allow 52 cents for transportation from the interior to New York, which is about 
the average cost. 

The fair average price of wheat at Dantzic, the great grain market of 
northern Europe, has been for the last twenty years -$1 per bushel. Average 
freight from Dantzic to England, 11 cents per bushel ; from New York to 
England, 18 cents per bushel. 

Forty cents a bushel for corn at New Orleans, and 56 at New York is said 
to be the fair average price. Corn can be " arked" from St. Louis and vicinity 
to New Orleans for 12£ cents a bushel, but it will not bear transportation any 
distance to a navigable river. 

At the west, grain is hauled to a river or canal, thence shipped to a lake- 
port, thence to Buffalo, thence to Albany, thence to New York. It pays four 
warehouse and shipping charges, and five distinct freights. It costs from two 
to three times as much to transport a barrel of flour from the far grain-grow- 
ing west to New York, as thence to Liverpool. 

The south of Russia exports immense quantities of grain from the Black 
sea to France, England, and other countries. Freights from the Danube to 
Liverpool are as high as 45 cents per bushel (while the corn costs only 24 
cents on board) and from Odessa, the freights are from 30 to 35 cents. 

The west must before long burst its barriers, and open more and larger 
channels for communication with the Atlantic. A recent statement from a 
western paper says that one fourth of the state of Indiana cultivated in corn 
would produce 200.000,000 of bushels ; and another fourth in wheat would 
produce 50,000,000. The state could feed ten millions of people, and have a 
large surplus left; and yet Indiana is the smallest of the western states. 
With this knowledge of the inexhaustible fertility and almost boundless ex- 
tent of the west, all the large cities on the coast are striving to obtain its 
trade. And yet it is remarkable that so little attention has been directed to the 
nearest, and. in every point of view, the most convenient and eligible line of 
communication over the mountains. New York has expended over $20,000,000 ; 
Pennsylvania, nearly $40,000,000; and Maryland, $10,000,000 or $12,000,000, 
and must add fifty per cent, more before the works will be completed) to 
draw the trade of the west. One half the amount expended by these states 
would have opened a thoroughfare from or near the great southern bend of the 
Ohio, through Virginia, to tide water, of more value to the west, than all of 
the above lines combined. Had sufficient intelligence and enterprise been 
directed to this point at the commencement of internal improvements, thirty 
years ago, a city would now be in progress at, or in the vicinity of Norfolk, 
destined to excel New York in greatness, and to control for ever, probably, 
the trade of the Ohio valley. From Cincinnati, or any other central position 
in the valley, Richmond is one or two hundred miles nearer than any other 
. easily-accessible tidewater. Two large rivers, the James and Kenhawa, rise 
in the same mountains, and run opposite courses, on the direct line of com- 
munication. True, the mountains must be tunnelled or otherwise overcome, 
but so they must everywhere. But in addition to this route being the most 
direct, the shortest, and most convenient for the whole Ohio valley, its central 
position would forbid all successful rivalry. The more northern channels of 
trade will always be exposed to interruption from the frosts and storms of win- 
ter; the high southern latitude of New Orleans renders it objectionable as a 
depot for northern products during the summer: while the route through Vir- 
ginia being on a medium between the two extremes, would be open at all 
seasons; and its terminus at the foot of the Chesapeake always accessible, 
and eligible in every respect. In natural advantages for communicating with 
foreign countries, Norfolk and its vicinity is without a rival, perhaps in the 



MISCELLANY. 161 

world. The harbor of Hampton Roads, in its capacity and depth, its safety, 
its deep and spacious entrance from the ocean, its security from invasion, and 
its connexion with the interior by navigable bays and rivers, can not be ex- 
celled. The intelligent mariner who casts anchor there is surprised that a po- 
sition so calculated by nature for commanding a great^foreign and interior 
trade, has received so little attention amid the great doings of American en- 
terprise. The answer can only be found in Virginia slothfulness. Une- 
qualled in position, in natural advantages and resources, she reposes on her 
laurels as the mother of states and statesmen, apparently satisfied with the 
proud station she already occupies. 



COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Imports and Exports for the year ending June, 1846. 

IMPORTS. 

Specie and bullion $3,777,732 

Foreign goods, free of duty 24,767,739 

Foreign goods, paying ad- valorem duty 60,660,453 

Foreign goods, paying specific duty 36,263,605 



Total Imports $125,469,529 

EXPORTS. 

Specie and bullion \ $427,511 

Foreign goods, free of duty 5,824,046 

Foreign goods, paying ad-valorem duty 2,702,251 

Foreign goods, paying specific duty 2,820,326 

Domestic goods and produce 102,141,893 



Total Exports , $113,916,027 



Ex-cess of Imports $11,553,770 

Imports and Exports in American vessels $196,763,591 

Imports and Exports in foreign vessels 42,621,965 



Total Imports and Exports $239,385,556 



Vessels Entered and Cleared in the United States, 

No. Tons. Crews*. 

American vessels 16,562 4,372,142 213,806 

Foreign vessels 11,477. 1,927,917 108,888 



Tonnage of the United States. 

Tonnage registered 1,130,287 

Tonnage enrolled and licensed 1,399,290 

Tonnage under 20 tons 32,508 



Total Tonnage 2,562,085 

Tonnage engaged in whale-fishing 186,980 

Steam tonnage engaged in whale-fishing 6,286 

Tonnage in the codfishery 72,516 



162 



MISCELLANY. 



Tonnage in the mackerel fishery. 36,463 

Steamboat tonnage 341,606 

Vessels built during the year 1,317 

Amount of tonnage of do 152,111 

Amount of Gold and Silver extracted from the Mines of 
America to 1825. 



Period, 


Y'rs. 

53 
55 
50 
50 
50 
50 
25 

333 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Total. 


1492 to 1545 
1545 to 1600 
1600 to 1650 
1650 to 1700 
1700 to 1750 
1750 to 1800 
1800 to 1825 


$90,000,000 
150,000,000 
138,000,000 
187,000,000 
600,000,000 
510,000,000 
215,000,000 

$1,890,000,000 


$30,000,000 
630,000,000 
612,000,000 
603,000,000 
620,000,000 
1,230,000,000 
585,000,000 


$120,000,000 
780,000,000 
750,000,000 
790,000,000 
1,220,000,000 
1,740,000,000 
800,000,000 


$4,310,000,000 


$6,200,000,000 



What a vast, incomprehensible sum of money! At sixteen dollars to the 
pound, and two thousand pounds to the ton, this amount of silver would weigh 
more than 134,000 tons, a weight which the whole American navy could not 
carry. What untold pleasures has this " glittering dust" enhanced ; what un- 
known miseries has it brought upon individuals, families, and nations ! And 
what a withering, blighting curse, has it entailed upon the countries, the 
Spanish-American states, where it was produced ! Modern geologists who 
have examined the region inform us that the gold country of the southern 
states is as rich in that mineral as any part of the world. May Heaven for- 
bid ! Mountains of iron, coal, copper, and lead, encourage industry, promote 
health and happiness, and constitute substantial wealth ; but the discovery of 
a mountain of gold or silver in our own country, would be one of the heaviest 
curses which Heaven could inflict upon us as a nation — not because gold and 
silver are evil in themselves, but because men love them inordinately. " The 
love of money is the root of all evil." — " It was the fortune of the Spaniards 
to dig poverty and national misery out of their mines ; it is ours, to plough 
gold and silver out of the soil." 



Average Amount of Coinage of Gold and Silver of late years, 
in several countries. 



' 




Per [ 






Per 


Countries. 


Amount. 


head 


Countries. 


Amount. 


head 




$4,300,000 


Pop. 
$0.25 






Pop. 
$011 


United States - 


British India - - 


$13,300,000 


Mexico ... - 


12,000,000 


1.55 


France - - - - 


25,600,000 


76 


Colombia - - - 


2,000,000 


62 


Sweden- - - - 


690,000 


23 


Peru ...» - 


3,000,000 


1.76 


Denmark - - - 


128,000 


06 


Chili --.-. 


400,000 


26 


Saxony - - - - 


340,000 


20 


Bolivia - - - - 


1,500,000 


1.00 


Prussia - - - - 


1,800,000 


13 


Brazil ----.. 


60,000 


01 


Austria - - - - 


6,000,000 


17 


Great Britain - - 


7,300,000 


29 


Spain .... 


400,000 


03 



MISCELLANY. 1G3 

The relative* value of gold and silver has varied in different 
ages and countries. It was 16 to 10 and 12, among the ancient 

i e « k ,f ; \ t0 8 and U amon £ the Romans.— An average of the 
last 80 or 90 years, gives 1 to 15 nearly. 



Amount of Coinage at the United States Mint. 

From 1793 to 1800; inclusive $9 534 135 57 

From 1800 to 1810, inclusive ... "6 971 154 69 

From 1810 to 1820, inclusive .\" " 9W479/52 

From 1820 to 1830, inclusive * 18*835*55 1*65 

From 1830 to 1840, inclusive \ 46',421 , ,766'.71 

Fiom 1840 to 1846, inclusive 38,*389, ? 234.83 

Total $122,480,321.87 

a n?ii th nM7«f • WGre $52 ' 3 *7' 5 f in 2° ld > $69,052,014 in silver, 
ana $ 1,083,764 in copper. Total number of pieces, 315,239,606. 
coinage from January 1, to June 30, 1847, $8,206,223. All 
loreign coin received by the government is at once transferred to 
tne mint, where it is recoined, and paid out as American. 

RATES OF INTEREST IN THE DIFFERENT STATES, &C, WITH THE 
PENALTIES FOR USURY. 

Maine— 6 per cent. ; forfeit of the debt or claim, 
taken™ Hampshire ~~ 6 P er cent - ' forfeit of three times the usury 

Vermont— 6 per cent.; usury recoverable in an action, with costs. 
Massachusetts— 6 per cent. ; forfeit of three times the usury. 
Khode Island— 6 per cent. ; forfeit of the interest and usury. 
Connecticut— 6 per cent. ; forfeit of the whole debt. 
New York— 7 per cent. ; usurious contracts void. 
New Jersey— 7 per cent. ; forfeit of the whole debt. 
Pennsylvania-6 per cent. ; forfeit of the whole debt. 
Delaware— 6 per cent. ; forfeit of the whole debt. 
Maryland, | —6 per cent. ; on tobacco contracts, 8 per 

i)ist. ol Columbia, j cent. ; usurious contracts void. 
Virginia— 6 per cent. ; forfeit double the usury taken. 
North Carolina— 6 per cent. ; contracts for usury void ; forfeits 
double the usury. 

South Carolina— 7 per cent. ; forfeit of interest and usury with 

Georgia— 8 per cent. ; forfeit three times the usury 5 contract 
Alabama— 8 per cent. ; forfeit of interest and usury. 
coverabTe SiPP1 ~ 8 PCT ° ent * ; by contract as hi £ h as 10 ? US ™Y m 



164 MISCELLANY. 

Louisiana — 5 per cent. ; bank interest 6 ; by agreement as high 
as 10 ; beyond that, contract void. 

Tennessee — 6 per cent. ; usurious contracts void. 

Kentucky — 6 per cent. ; usury recoverable with costs. 
*- Ohio — 6 per cent. ; usurious contracts void. 

Indiana — 6 per cent. ; on written agreement as high as 10 ; 
forfeit double the usury. 

Illinois — 6 per cent. ; forfeit three times the interest due. 

Missouri — 6 per cent. ; by agreement as high as 10 ; forfeit in- 
terest and usury. 

Michigan — 7 per cent. ; forfeit the usury and one fourth of the 
debt. 

Arkansas — 6 per cent. ; by agreement as high as 10 ; usury 
recoverable — contract void. 

Florida — 8 per cent. ; forfeit of interest and usury. 

Wisconsin — 7 per cent. ; by agreement as high as 12 ; forfeit 
three times the usury. 

Iowa — 7 per cent. ; by agreement as high as 12 ; forfeit three 
times the usury. 

On debts or judgments in favor of the United States, interest is 
computed at 6 per cent. 

The foregoing table exhibits in a striking manner the various opinions of 
legislative bodies on the subject of interest. The penalties annexed include 
every degree of pecuniary punishment from simply losing the unlawful inter- 
est to the forfeiture of the whole debt. The great variety of opinions exhibit- 
ed in these laws and penalties, on so simple and plain a subject, only proves 
that the rate of interest can not be regulated by legislation. 

If justice is satisfied with the forfeiture of the extra or unlawful interest in 
Vermont, it is injustice to require the forfeiture of three times this amount in 
Massachusetts, and extreme injustice to have the whole debt forfeited in 
Connecticut. The principle of justice is immutable, and can not be changed 
in different states or governments. What is right in Maine can not be wrong 1 
in Louisiana. And the various penalties attached to the same act (taking 
usurious interest) in the different states would indicate justice to be a market- 
able commodity, of very uncertain value. Justice is not such a commodity, 
but money is. Herein lies the error, and the utter futility of attempting to 
regulate by legal enactments that which is continually changing by time and 
circumstances beyond the reach of legislation. Money is but a medium of ex- 
change, or an article of merchandise, and as such, its value to individuals can 
no more be regulated by law, than the fluctuations of commerce, or the direc- 
tion and force of the winds. No doubt the intention of these laws is to pro- 
tect the borrower from the oppression of the lender ; but upon the same prin- 
ciple, legislation ought to establish the price of every article of merchandise 
offered for sale. None but an autocrat or a despot could do this, and the ex- 
ercise of the power would soon clear his dominions of money and commerce. 
The capitalist or money-lender, like the merchant, is looking out for the high- 
est profit ; and the borrower is governed, in his offer of interest, by the dfffi- 
culty or importance of meeting his engagements, and the value he sets upon 
his credit. It is for his own interest to pay whatever premium he has offered 
for the use of money ; the legal liability is seldom or never pleaded by honor- 
able men, and thus the penalty of the law becomes a dead letter, or rather is 



MISCELLANY. 165 

trampled upon daily. No law which can not regulate the circumstances of id- 
dividuals can prevent these results. 

The moral obligation to obey these laws must be weak upon the community, 
when the lawmakers themselves pay no respect to them. Probably all civil- 
ized and Christian nations have enacted severe laws against the taking of usu- 
ry ; and probably all of them are paying rates of interest, which by their own 
laws are usurious. A nation, or a corporation, in debt, mnst place itself pre- 
cisely in the position of a hard- pressed merchant, and sell its notes or bonds 
at a discount. An individual legislator, whose credit was worth preserving, 
would not hesitate to give 10 or 20 per cent, to sustain it, if those were the best 
terms he could make. Were nations wise enough to let war alone, to expend 
the thousands of millions wasted in warlike and military preparations in cul- 
tivating and extending friendly relations among nations and men — in leaving 
trade and commerce free and unrestricted as was evidently designed by the 
great Creator — the interest on money would regulate itself without any aid 
ii'om legislation. 

Another, objection to these laws relative to interest is, that in effect, they 
chiefly promote the interests of unprincipled men. There are many rich men 
of high moral rectitude, who under the double injunction of the Divine and 
civil law, will not receive unlawful interest. They invest their money in oth- 
er ways ; and thus the whole business of shaving is left to those who disre- 
gard the law without any conscientious scruples, who hoard up their treasures 
for such times of need, and who fatten and grow rich upon the misfortunes or 
imprudences of others. 

Were the laws relating to usury repealed, and a rate of interest fixed as a 
standard : were there also a law passed legalizing all transactions relating to 
interest which were expressed in writing, or susceptible of proof, would not 
the injury to society of a constantly violated law, at least be removed 1 



POSTAGE, ETC. 

The following abstract of the new postage law, with the addi- 
tional regulations passed at the last session of Congress, comprise 
everything of general interest: — 

For a letter not weighing over half an ounce, and not over 300 
miles distance, 5 cents. 

For the same sent over 300 miles, 10 cents. 

For every half ounce, and any excess over half an ounce, the 
same rates are charged. 

Letters advertised are charged the cost of advertising (2 cents), 
or more. 

Letters dropped in the office, not to be mailed, 2 cents. 

Printed circulars, handbills, or advertisements, on foolscap, and 
not larger, unsealed, sent any distance, 2 cents. 

Pamphlets, magazines, periodicals, or other printed matter, 
weighing not over one ounce, any distance, 2\ cents. 

For every ounce over, or over half an ounce, 1 cent. 

Newspapers exchanged between editors, free. 

Newspapers not exceeding 1,900 square inches in size (same as 
old law) 1 and 1£ cents. 

If they exceed 1,900 square inches in size, the same postage as 
pamphlets and magazines, &c. 



166 MISCELLANt. 

Postmasters whose compensation does not exceed $200 annu- 
ally, may send and receive letters, written by or to themselves, 
not weighing over half an ounce. 

Members of Congress may send and receive, free, through the 
mail, letters and packages not exceeding two ounces in weight, 
and public documents not exceeding three pounds in weight. 

Transient newspapers, handbills, or circulars, must pay 3 cents 
each before they can be sent by mail. Postmasters can not receive 
newspapers, handbills, circulars, &c, free. 

. Letters addressed to different persons can not be sent under one 
cover, under a penalty of ten dollars. 

Letters, newspapers, and packages, not exceeding one ounce in 
weight, may be sent free to any officer, musician, or private, in 
the army serving in Mexico. They should be addressed to the 
person intended, and also endorsed, " Belonging to the army." 

The following are the rates of compensation allowed to post- 
masters : — 

On the amount of letter postage not exceeding $100 in the year, 
40 per cent. 

On any sum between $100 and $400, 33 per cent. : 

On any sum between $400 and $2,400, 30 per cent. 

On any sum over $2,400 in a year, 12| per cent. 

On all postages arising from magazines, papers, and pamphlets, 
50 per cent. 

Postmasters are also entitled to $2,000 out of the receipts of 
their box rents ; the surplus of such receipts may be applied to the 
expenses of their offices. 

Penalties. — Persons establishing private expresses for the con- 
veyance of letters, or other mailable matter, are liable to a fine of 
$150 for each offence. 

The owner of any stage-coach, railroad car, steamboat, packet, 
or other vessel or vehicle, running on a route where the mail is 
regularly carried, is liable to a fine of $100 for carrying letters or 
any mailable matter, except what relates to the cargo or articles 
transported in such vehicle ; and the captain, conductor, or driver, 
of such stage, vessel, or vehicle, is also subject to a fine of $50 for 
each offence. 

But letters or mailable matter may be carried by private hands 
over a mail-route, no compensation being received therefor. 

No packet or package shall be carried / in the mail weighing 
more than three pounds. 

Newspapers, pamphlets, &c, may be sent over a post-route for 
distribution among subscribers, and for sale, without going in the 
mail. 

The law of Congress reducing the rates of postage, curtailed the receipts of 
the department the first year of its operation some 40 or 45 per cent. ; but they 



MISCELLANY. 



167 



are now gradually improving. The system of low postage is so convenient 
and beneficial to the whole community, that the public ought to guard it with 
special care. And while the public voice resolves that the present rates shall 
never be increased, let its influence also be exerted in sustaining the depart- 
ment in all legal measures and proper regulations for carrying out the system. 
It should frown upon and oppose all private expresses and other modes of rob- 
bing the mail. There is a degree of meanness in endeavoring to make a sav- 
ing out of the present low rates of postage, to which no honorable mind can 
ever descend. Let the mail have all the mailable matter. Pay the postage, and 
pay it cheerfully. As far as possible, prepay. We are not in favor of a law 
requiring prepayment in all cases — such a law would reduce the mails and the 
income from postage at once ; but the sum is so small that it can be paid with- 
out inconvenience, and the general adoption of prepayment would have a great 
influence in perpetuating and still further reducing the system of cheap post- 
ages. All that is necessary in order to effect these objects is, the equalizing 
the advantages and burdens of the postoffice, as some sections of the country 
enjoy much greater advantages than others, in proportion to the amount they 
contribute toward its expenses ; and the united concurrence of the people in 
sustaining the postoffice department. 



Postoffice Statistics for 1846. 



States. 



Maine - - 
New Hampshi 
Vermont 
Massachusetts 
Rhode Island 
Connecticut 
New York - 
New Jersey 
Pennsylvania 
Delaware - 
Maryland - 
Virginia - - 
North Carolina 
South Carolina 
Georgia - - 
Florida - - 
Ohio - - - 
Michigan 
Indiana - - 
Illinois - - 
Wisconsin - 
Iowa - - - 
Missouri - - 
Kentucky - 
Tennessee - 
Alabama 
Mississippi - 
Arkansas 
Louisiana - 
Texas - - 



No. of 
Postoffices. 



571 
318 
333 
508 
49 
290 

1,934 
304 

1,377 

50 

308 

1,052 

647 

390 

497 

69 

1,304 
418 
610 
649 
139 
115 
428 
474 
583 
422 
282 
171 
138 



14,433 



Miles of 
Post Routes. 



3.955 
2.384 
2,520 
3,618 
384 
1,788 

13,304 
2,021 

10,276 

605 

2.351 

10,021 
7,323 
4,605 
5,782 
2,937 

11,337 
4,073 
6,855 
8,473 
2,881 
1,409 
7,909 
7,613 
6,906 
6,723 
4,361 
4,458 
2,806 
3,186 

152,865 



15 



Total Miles of 
Transportat'n. 



1,114,422 

705,348 

727,724 

1,910,810 

158,394 

732,008 

4,944,499 

733,841 

2,864,332 

150,914 

923,000 

2,420,549 

1,586,748 

1,017,088 

1,228,622 

348,061 

3,098,412 

830,152 

1,212,576 

1,884,534 

302,104 

174,408 

1,477,088 

2,282,188 

1,326,368 

1,456,324 

831,272 

590,668 

365,960 



37,398,414 



Total Annual 
Cost. 



$40,791 
25,409 
26,723 

105,898 

9,102 

43,863 

237,918 
58,850 

155,304 
7,887 

133,679 

193,586 

172,557 

117,959 

150,162 
44,909 

166,954 
48,288 
68,875 

125,291 

15,691 

8,658 

68,259 

125,850 
91,160 

227,412 
95,109 
56,264 
42,670 



2,716,673 



168 



MISCELLANY. 



Rates of Postage to Foreign Countries — On all letters and 
packages not exceeding half an ounce in weight, 24 cents. 

On all over half an ounce, and not over one ounce in weight, 48 
cents ; and for every additional half-ounce, 15 cents. 

On each newspaper, pamphlet, and price current, 3 cents. 

Postage from the interior to the port of departure must always 
be paid, or letters will not be sent abroad. 

Comparison of Rates of Postage in Different Countries. — England, Id. ; 
Prussia, 2\d. ; Spain, 2%d. ; Sardinia, 3\d. ; Austria, 3%d, ; Russia, 4d. ; France, 
4$d. ; United States, 2fd. 



ABSTRACT OF LATE CENSUS (1845) IN NEW YORK CITY. 

Population— males, 180,365; females, 190,737— total, 371,102. 

No. of aliens not naturalized 61,961 

No. of voters 64,233 

No. of whole foreign population -------- 146,202 

of whom, from the British dominions ----- 95,373 

from Germany 43,416 

from France 3,763 

from other parts 3,650 



No. of colored persons in 1840 
No. of colored persons in 1845 



Decrease 



16,358 
11,831 

4,527 



No. subject to military 

duty 35,410 

No. of paupers - - - 1,953 

Married females under 

45 years of age - - 54,207 

Unmarried females be- 
tween 16 and 45 - - 51,656 

Unmarried females un- 
der 16 years - - - 62,020 

Marriages 2,555 

Births, males - - - 7,519 

females - - - - 6,495 

Deaths, males - - - 3,471 

females - - - - 2,819 



Children between 5 and 

16 years ----- 70,061 
Children attending pub- 
lic school - - - - 39,066 
Children attending pri- 
vate school - - - - 17,425 
Children attending acad- 

mies 1,270 

Children attending col- 
leges 252 

Deaf and dumb persons - 250 
Blind persons - - - - 58 

Idiots 39 

Lunatics ----- 558 



New York City in 1846. — Value of real and personal estate, 
$244,952,004 ; average rate of taxation, $1.04 on $100 ; amount 
of tax levied for 1846, $2,520,179 ; city debt, $12,257,906 (nearly 



MISCELLANY. 



169 



all of this was incurred in bringing the Croton water into the 
city) ; interest on city debt, $761,099. 

Expenditures for city government, $1,723,593. Among the 
items of expenditure are : Police, $444,997 ; almshouse, $354,938 ; 
common schools, $232,100; cleaning streets, $158,439 (from which 
deduct $41,242 for receipts) ; fire department, $37,164 ; lamps and 
gas, $162,830. 



GOVERNORS OF STATES. 



State. 

- 


Capital. 


Governor. 


1 


Exp 


ires. 


Salary. 


Maine 


Augusta - - - 


John W. Dana - - - 


Jan., 


1849 


$1,500 


N. H. 


Concord - - - 


Jared W. Williams - - 


1 


June, 


1848 


1,000 


Vt. 


Montpelier - - 


Horace Eaton - - - - 


,1 


Oct., 


1848 


750 


Mass. 


Boston - - - 


George N. Briggs • - 


1 


Jan., 


1849 


2,500 


a. i. 


Providence and 














Newport - - 


Elisha W. Harris - - - 


1 


May, 


1848 


400 


Conn. 


Hartford & New 














Haven - - 


Clark Bissell - - - - 


1 


MayT 


^1849 


1,100 


N. Y. 


Albany - • - 


John Young .... 


2 


Jan., 


1849 


4,000 


N.J. 


Trenton - - - 


Daniel Haines .... 


3 


Jan., 


1851 


2,000 


Penn. 


Harrisburg • - 


Francis R. Shunk - - 


3 


Jan., 


1851 


3,000 


Del. 


Dover - - - 


William Tharp - - - 


4 


Jan., 


1849 


1,333 


Md. 


Annapolis - - 


Philip Francis Thomas - 


3 


Jan., 


1851 


4,200 


Va. 


Richmond - - 


William Smith - - - 


3 


May, 


1850 


3,333 


N. C. 


Raleigh - .- - 


William A. Graham - 


2 


Jan., 


1849 


2,000 


s. c. 


Columbia - - 


David Johnson - * - - 


2 


Dec, 


1848 


3,500 


Ga. . 


Milledgeville - 


Geo. W. B. Towns - - 


2 


Nov., 


1849 


3,500 


Fla. 


Tallahassee 


William D. Mosely - - 


2 


Aug., 


1849 


2,500 


Ala. 


Montgomery - 


Reuben Chapman - - 


o 


Dec, 


1849 


3,500 


Miss. 


Jackson - - - 


Albert G. Brown - - - 


o 


Jan., 


1849 


3,000 


La. 


New Orleans - 


Isaac Johnson .... 


4 


Jan., 


1851 


6,000 


Texas 


Austin - - - 


R. Miller 


2 


Dec, 


1849 


2,000 


Ark. 


Little Rock - 


Thomas S. Drew - - 


4 


Nov., 


1848 


2,000 


Tenn. 


Nashville - - 


Neil S. Brown - - - 


o 


Oct., 


1849 


2,000 


Ky. 
Ohio 


Frankfort - - 


William Owsley - - - 


4 


Sept., 


1848 


2,500 


Columbus - • 


William Bebb - - - 


2 


Dec, 


1848 


1,200 


Ind. 


Indianapolis - 


James Whitcomb - • 


3 


Dec, 


1849 


1,500 


111. 


Springfield - - 


A. G. French^- - - - 


4 


Dec, 


1850 


1,000 


Mich. 


Michigan City 


Epaphroditus Ransom - 


2 


Jan., 


1850 


1,500 


Wise. 


Madison - - - 


Henry Dodge - - - - 


3 


July, 


1850 


1,500 


Iowa 


Monroe City - 


Anssll Briggs - - - - 


3 


March 1850 


1,500 


Mo. 


Jefferson - - 


John C. Edwards - - - 


4 


Nov., 


1848 


1,500 



MONEYS, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

In England, accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence : 
12d. equals Is., and 20s. £1. This is called sterling money. One 
penny sterling is nearly equal to 2 cents United States currency ; 
one shilling, to 24 cents; one pound (£1), to $4.80. 



170 



MISCELLANY. 



[The foregoing' is the proper value of English money in our cur- 
rency ; but, as the rate of exchange is generally in favor of Eng- 
land, it is the common practice to make the pound starling equal 
to $5 American.] 

In France, accounts are kept in francs and centimes : One hun- 
dred centimes equal one franc ; and one franc, by the last law of 
Congress on the subject, is taken at eighteen and six tenths cents. 

Value of Foreign Coins, SfC, in United States Currency. 



Gold. 
Spanish doubloon 



$15.60 
to 16.75 



Half, quarter, and eighth, 

in proportion. 

English sovereign - - 4.83 

Half-sovereign - - - 2.41 

English guinea - - - 5.00 

Half-guinea - - - - 2.50 

Louis d'or (French) - - 4.50 

Forty francs (French) - 7.66 

Twenty francs (French) 3.83 

Austrian sovereign - - 6.50 

Five roubles Russia - - 3.90 
Double Frederick (Prussia) 7.80 

Ten thalers (Hanover) ) ~ Qn 

Ten thalers (Saxony) J /,yu 

Ten guilders (NetherPds) 4.00 

Five guilders (Netherl'ds) 2.00 

Silver. 

Dollar of Mexico, Peru, 

Grenada, Equador, &c. 1.00 
Half,;quarter, and eighth, 

in proportion. 

Head pistareen - ... 18 

Cross pistareen - - - 16 

English crown - - - - 1.15 

Half crown 57 

Eank token 50 

Rupee (East India) - - 40 

Colonial quarter (British) 23 

English shilling - - - 23 

English sixpence - - - 11 

English fourpence - - 07 

English threepence - - 05 



Tenpence (Irish) - - - $0.12 
French crown - - - - 1.07 
French half-crown - - 50 
French five-francs - - 93 
French two-francs - - 36 
French one-franc (a frac- 
tion of six tenths over) 18 
French half-franc - - - 09 
Thaler of Prussia and the 

northern German states 69 

Double thaler of Baden n 

and Prussia - - - - 1.32 

Crown thaler of Baden - 1.04 

Imperial thaler of Austria 97 

Rouble of Russia - - - 65 

Crown dollar of Bavaria 1.04 
Specie dollar of Sweden 

and Norway - - - 1.06 

Specie dollar of Denmark 1.05 

Double guilder of Bavaria 72 

German crown - - - 1.04 

Crown thaler of Hesse - 1.04 

Guilder of Nassau - - 36 

36 grotes (Bremen) - - 30 

6 grotes (Hanse towns) - 04 
Florin of Westphalia, and 

Brunswick, &c. - - 48 
Florin of southern Ger- 
many 40 

Florin of Austria - - - 48 
Florin of Hanover - - 50 
Florin of Tuscany - - 20 
Groschen (silver) of Ger- 
many ------ 2\ 

The pound of Nova Sco- 
tia, New Brunswick, 

Canada, &c. - - - - 4.00 



MISCELLANY. 



171 



The common weights and measures of England are the same 
as those of the United States ; but the following are but little used 
in this country : — 



14 pounds are equal to 1 stone, 

of wool, &c. 
364 pounds are equal to 1 sack, 

of wool, &c. 
12 sacks equal 1 last, or 39 cwt. 
1 hand is equal to 4 inches — 

height of horses, &c. 



1 ell is equal to 5 quarters of a 

yard. 
1 fathom is equal to 6 feet — 

measuring depths. 
1 cubit is equal to 18 inches. 
1 quarter is equal to 8 bushels, 

of grain, flour, &c. 



The following are the principal weights and measures of 
France : — 



1 kilogramme equals 2.20548 
pounds, or 2.2 pounds Amer- 
ican, nearly. 

1 decimetre equals 3.9 inches, 
nearly. 

1 metre equals 3.25 feet. 

1 myriametre equals 6.25 miles. 



1 litre equals 1.75 pints. 
1 decalitre equals 2.2 gallons. 
1 hectolitre equals 22 gallons. 
1 arpent equals 0.8333 of an 

acre. 
1 hectre equals 2.47, or 2.5 

acres, nearly. 



The following are some of the weights, measures, &c, of other 
countries : — 

1 arroba of Spain, Mexico, Cuba, &c, equals 25 pounds. 

4 arrobas of Spain, Mexico, Cuba, &c, equal 1 quintal. 

100 pounds Spanish equal 101.75 pounds English. 

1 vara equals 0.927 of an English yard. 

1 fanega of grain equals 1.5 bushels, nearly. 

1 centner ot Holland equals 100 pounds. 

1 centner of Dantzic equals 120 pounds. 

1 aam, or ahm, equals 41 gallons. 

1 aam, or ahm, of Belgium equals 36.5 gallons. 

1 Dantzic foot (Prussian) equals 11.3 inches. 

100 copecks (Russian) equal 1 silver rouble. 

1 silver rouble of Russia equals 65 cents. 

1 paper rouble of Russia equals 21 cents. 

1 pood (Russian) equals 36 pounds. 

1 foot (Russian) 134 inches. 

1 verst, or werst, equals 3,500 feet. 

1 piastre of Egypt, or Turkey, equals 5 cents, varying. 

1 picul of Canton equals 133.5 pounds. 

1 catty equals I| pounds, or .001 of a picuL 

15* 



172 



MISCELLANY. 



PEACE AND WAR — THE DIFFERENCE. 



1 

Periods. 


The Sums Ex- 
pended, and 
Debt Paid. 


Annual Ave- 
rage. 


Great Britain expended — 
In the war commencing 1689, of 8 years - 
In the war commencing 1701, of 13 years - 
In the war commencing 1740, of 8 years - 
In the war commencing 1756, of 7 years - 
In the war commencing 1775, of 8 years - 
In the war commencing 1793, of 9 years - 
In the war commencing 1803, of 10 years - 

63 years - 

Debt paid in peace of 1697, of 4 years - - 
Debt paid in peace of 1714, of 26 years - - 
Debt paid in peace of 1748, of 8 years - - 
Debt paid in peace of 1763, of 12 years - - 
Debt paid in peace of 1783, of 10 years - - 

60 years - - 

Debt contracted in 63 years of war - - *.- - 
Debt paid in 60 years of peace 

Difference 


£20,460,817 
37,286,375 
31,843,745 
66,669.597 
115,267,994 
271,763,915 
99,837,134 


£2,557,602 
2,868,183* 
3.980,468 
8,809,942 
14,408,499 
30,195.990 
9,983,713 


638,129,577 


10,129,040 


£5,121,041 

7,231,508 

6,003,640 

10,996,016 

10,242,100 


£1,280,260 

278,135 

750,455 

916,334 

1,024,210 


39,594,305 


649,087 


£638,129,577 
39,594,305 


£10,129,040 
649,087 


598,535,272 


9,479,953 



At this rate, it requires about eighteen years of peace to make up for one 
year of war ; and this in the lowest and cheapest view of that calamity — a 
calculation of dollars and cents. 

" War is a game which, were the people wise, 
Kings would not play at" — 

nor republics either. 

As one of the consequences of these wars, one hundred and fifty millions of 
dollars (interest on the debt) must be paid by the British nation every year. 
In England, every rich man's houses, and lands, and horses, and carriages, 
and furniture, are heavily taxed ; and every poor man's bread, and meat, and 
coffee, and tea, and sugar, and fuel, and clothing. This is what Franklin would 
call paying " too dear for the whistle." 

Take another view of the subject : " The war debts of the European nations 
amount to $10,000,000,000 (ten thousand millions). It would require the labor 
of four millions of men, at $150 per annum for each man, to pay the interest 
of this sum at 6 per cent. To pay the principal, it would be necessary to tax 
every inhabitant of the globe at least $10. Another fact, rendering this more 
impressive, may be found in the fact, that no heathen nations are in arrears 
for the butcheries they have perpetrated on the human race. They pay cash 
down for all they do for the devil in this way. Christian nations alone ' go on 
tick' for that kind of service." 



MISCELLANY. 173 

"NATIONAL REFORM ASSOCIATION," 

Somebody has said : " This will be a great country — when it is finished." 
But we see little prospect of its being " finished" at present, from the multitude 
of schemes, theories, and speculations, which are continually agitated and de- 
mand urgent attention, as though the safety of society depended upon their 
being adopted. 

There is a society in New York under the above name, which proposes to 
"reform" the world (beginning in New York) by advocating the following 
sentiments : — 

11 Plan of restoring the Land of New York to the People." 

1. No one hereafter shall, under any circumstances, become 
possessed of more than 160 acres of land in this state. 

2. No one hereafter shall, under any circumstances, become 
possessed of more than one lot in a city or village, the size of 
which may be regulated by the authorities. 

3. There shall be a special court of commissions, who shall de- 
termine, on principles of equity (without regard to law), where 
land has been held by a twenty years', a life, or a perpetual lease, 
what, or whether any, compensation shall be paid to the claim- 
ant in full extinguishment of his claim. 

4. The homestead lot or farm shall be inalienable, except at the 
will of the occupant, and then only transferable to a landless 
person. 

5. Every corporation of whatever name or nature, now holding 
land, shall be allowed five years to dispose of the same to landless 
persons, under the above restrictions, &c, &c, &c. 

We have copied the above, because we think it worthy of reflection, and 
for the purpose of making a very few observations. 

We love our country the better, and feel prouder of its free institutions, 
when such sentiments can be published with impunity. These sentiments are 
no " new thing under the sun," although their publication may be. The vi- 
cious, idle, improvident, and perhaps unfortunate, have secretly held these 
views relative to the distribution of property in all ages ; but they have very 
seldom had the hardihood to advocate them in the face of the law. There is 
not, perhaps, a country in Europe where such principles could be made pub- 
lic and advocated, without subjecting the author to a treadmill, a lunatic asy- 
lum, or a penitentiary ; and it is altogether probable that the principal actors 
in this " reform" association are foreigners, who lived under real or imagined 
oppression at home, but not daring to whisper such levelling doctrines there, 
came to this free country to give us the benefit of their profound philanthropy. 
Our country is in this respect the safety-valve of the world. Every belief, 
theory, or speculation, however crude, monstrous, or absurd, may be here ad- 
vocated for the good of " the world in general," under the American political 
maxim, that there " is no danger from error, when truth is left free to combat 
it." We think this maxim correct, believing it affords the only basis upon 
which free government can stand a moment. The rigidness of despotic or 
arbitrary law strikes at the root of all free inquiry, saying, in effect, that man 
is not accountable to his Maker for his belief and opinions, but to the law- 
makers of his government. Besides it is characteristic of the human disposi- 
tion to seek after forbidden fruit. Tn England, the circulation of infidel works 



174 MISCELLANY* 

is prohibited ; there, Tom Paine is sought after with eagerness ; in this coun- 
try, where there is no such restriction, he is neglected and forgotten. 

The foregoing extract and remarks were written more than a 
year ago, since which a friend has loaned us several numbers of 
" Young America," a weekly paper in New York, the " organ of 
the National Reform Association,' 1 in which we find the follow- 
ing laid down as the great general principles of national re- 
form :— 

1. The Freedom of the Public Lands ; 
A Reduction of Offices and Salaries, 

2. Abolition of the Tariff ; 

Abolition of the Standing Army and Navy ; 
Direct Taxation ; 
Homes for AIL 

We need hardly repeat, after what we have heretofore stated 
in this work, that we are the friend of the masses, the working- 
men — those whose labor acquires all the wealth of the world, but 
who enjoy the least of it themselves. But we are not prepared to 
assent to the foregoing doctrines — nor yet to condemn them. They 
are so vast in their scope, that no man, or society of men, is com- 
petent to foreshow what would be their practical results. They 
would produce a complete revolution in civil society, that is cer- 
tain ; but on what moral or civil basis the scattered elements 
would settle down under the new organization, that is unknown. 
We doubt not there are many men of great moral worth and good 
sense who honestly believe that the foregoing doctrines, if carried 
out, would prove a panacea for all the " ills that flesh is heir to." 
Our opinion is, simply, that the world is not ready for such doc- 
trines. We are glad they are agitated. Freedom of opinion leads 
to mental collision, and this is the first step in the path of im- 
provement. But, however proper and just they may be in them- 
selves, the present adoption of these doctrines would not materi- 
ally elevate the masses. They do not strike at the foundation of 
the bondage under which the laboring classes gfcoan. They lop 
off the branches of evil, but leave the root undisturbed to send 
forth perennial shoots. All reformations of society which are not 
based on moral renovation, will be inefficient and must fail. 
Change a man's outward circumstances as much as you will, he 
will still follow the inclinations of the heart. This is the fount- 
ain of good or evil, and will control him. Put a drunkard in a 
palace, and he will be a drunkard still. Give a poor man land, 
but unless his mother taught him industry and good habits in 
childhood, he will not be benefited by the gift (though his wife 
and children may). All measures for his elevation, without be- 
ginning with the heart, will have no more stability than a house 
bulk upon the sand. 



MISCELLANY. 175 

We therefore incline to adhere to the sentiment expressed in a 
former chapter (before we gave any attention to this subject), viz. : 
That the masses stand directly in their own light, and that all 
schemes for their elevation must begin in correcting themselves, 
morally and physically. To illustrate our meaning : How can 
the public lands be spared to give way, when they will be wanted 
(as at present) to reward the soldiers for fighting ? The people 
must, therefore, decree that there shall be no more wars, before 
they can divide the public lands among actual settlers. And when 
they do this, a great point toward their permanent improvement 
will be attained ; for at present, and in all past ages, the laboring 
classes have sustained all wars. They hurra for it at first, then 
do the fighting, then pay for it in taxation. Bad as the world is, 
there would be no international wars, if rich men had to fill the 
ranks of armies. Demagogues and bad men talk a great deal about 
national honor and glory, but they do it to inflame the populace 
and work up their passions to the fighting point, just as brutish 
men rub the ears of dogs to make them savage when going to 
fight each other. In connexion with this remark, we express our 
entire dissent to the tone and language of " Young America," the 
paper alluded to, with regard to the rich, or what are the so-called 
" higher classes." Denunciation of them will only make bad 
worse. The great evils under which civil and political society 
labors are not the fault of the rich, but of the masses. They are 
their own worst enemies. Let them make laws to elevate them- 
selves. If they are just laws, all rich men of sound moral prin- 
ciples will favor them ; but measures designed merely to pull 
down the rich can not be effected, and would not improve the 
condition of society if they could. 

There is another objection to the schemes of this reform associ- 
ation, which will always oppose a powerful obstacle to its prog- 
ress. It is charged that many of its prominent advocates are 
infidels or skeptics. If this charge is true, it will be opposed by 
the moral weight of Christianity of all sects, and ought to be. 
Our views of religious toleration are of the broadest character. It 
is very little of my business as a member of civil society, whether 
my neighbor worships the Supreme God of heaven and earth, or 
the three hundred millions of gods of China. If a Mohammedan 
should come here and build a mosque for his worship, let him do 
it without opposition or gainsaying. The days of stake-burning 
and branding to make men pious have passed away. The great 
truth that men are accountable to their Maker, and to him only, 
for their faith and belief, is the common law of the land, and the 
common sentiment of the people in our country. The only influ- 
ences which can be exerted in favor of religion here, are moral 
persuasion and the example of its professors. But the belief in 
Divine Revelation is happily too strongly fixed in the public mind, 



176 MISCELLANY. 

by the free circulation of the Bible, to be overthrown by unbe- 
lievers. Hence men who are known to be skeptics are regarded 
as blind guides in all great enterprises, and as having selfish ends 
in view in all their projects. They are perfectly free to enjoy 
their skepticism without molestation ; but no scheme requiring 
the united concurrence of a majority of society for its success can 
succeed, in which such men are known to be leaders or prominent 
actors. We will vote at once for giving away the public lands to 
actual settlers, in parcels of 100 acres to each, if each settler could 
carry the Bible along with him, and be governed by its principles. 
There never was any true liberty or equality in this world, there 
never will be any, except what is based on the Bible. 

The statement that God is the owner and great landlord of the 
world is a truth which we have heretofore expressed ; and if men 
were wise, they would exercise the independence and privileges 
for which they were created, and repose each one under his own 
vine and fig-tree. We have heard one of the greatest American 
statesmen express the opinion, that " the land belonged of right 
to him who toiled and cultivated it — this was God's law." And 
it is strange that, although it is evident enough the world was 
not " made for Cesar," yet the masses of mankind have in every 
age given up their rights and prerogatives, and become the slaves 
or tenants of Cesar, ready to do his bidding, fight his battles, or 
drag his chariot. This is human nature — yea, with all our liberty, 
and independence, and intelligence, it is American nature. Bring 
a hero from the wars, and parade him through any city of the 
Union ; put his regimentals on him, and martial music before 
him ; and what a storm of hurrahs follows him. What has he 
done to make himself a nation's idol ? Why, he has beaten the 
Mexicans, and covered himself and his country all over with glory. 
There is another side to this picture, but that is not seen in the 
same view. To make a fair estimate of this conqueror's glory, 
and its true value to his country, the street-gutters should run riv- 
ulets of human blood, dead and mutilated bodies should lie scat- 
tered around him, a procession of widows and orphans follow his 
footsteps, behind them a vast company of workingmen staggering 
under an unwonted burden, and the smoke and flames of burning 
cities rising in the distance. 

Tell me, are the multitudes which shout around this warrior's 
path, the proper agents for carrying out the principles of the Na- 
tional Reform Association ? — for enjoying equal rights, and peace- 
ful, inalienable homesteads? — for abolishing a standing army and 
navy, the tariff, &c, &c. ? Go to your shops and spades, work- 
ingmen ; ply your tools harder ; the world is not ready for a po- 
litical millennium yet. 

We respectfully suggest an additional article to the constitution 
of the National Reform Association, viz. : That each member 



MISCELLANY. 177 

shall make it the principal business of his life to reform himself ; 
to become a good citizen in the highest sense of the word ; to fol- 
low the golden rule, of doing as he would be done by. Then this 
enterprise will succeed, so far as it is founded upon principles of 
justice and right, for Truth and Heaven will befriend it. 

The following is a part of an address made by a poor man in England, on 
renouncing his connexion with a jacobin society : — 

"The industrious and poor man best serves his countiy by doing his duty 
to his family at home. He best ' amends' his country by giving it good chil- 
dren, and by setting a good example himself. He be6t governs by ' obeying' 
the laws, and by ruling in love and kindness his own little kingdom [republic] 
at home. His best ' reform' is correcting his own irregularities. His best 
' meetings' are those with his own family by his own fireside. His best ' reso- 
lutions' are those which he carries into effect for his own amendment, and that 
of his household. His best ' speeches' are those which promote peace on earth, 
and good will toward mankind. His best ' petitions' are those of a contrite 
heart addressed to the King of heaven. His best ' riches' is contentment. His 
best ' love' that of his family. Would he triumph, let him learn to endure ; 
would he be a hero, let him govern himself." 



INSTRUCTIVE HINTS FOR THE SOUTH. 

Manufactories in Georgia, and Tennessee. — Georgia and Tennessee are 
destined to become the great manufacturing states of the south, if not of the 
Union ; because they have not only greater resources in proportion to their 
population, but being traversed in every direction by railroads and rivers, 
and having a double outlet both to the gulf and the Atlantic, they will pos- 
sess unparalleled advantages in regard to both the foreign and domestic mar- 
kets. If our people would display one half the energy and enterprise of the 
yankees, in a quarter of a century from the present time we could surpass the 
whole of New England in wealth and population ; indeed, all that we now 
lack to develop that enterprise and energy is the establishment of manufacto- 
ries, and the more general introduction of machinery. 

Let us compare for a moment the agricultural wealth of the two states 
named with that of New England. Georgia and Tennessee have together a 
population of 1,694,000 ; the states of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, have 2,422,000 souls. Now, let us 
see the relative products of the two sections as developed by the census of 
1840, and by more recent statistics : — 

New England. Georgia and Tennessee. 

Corn 11,943,000 bushels - - - 83,585,000 bushels. 

Wheat 2,898,000 bushels - - - 9,911,000 bushels. 

Potatoes 20,581,000 bushels - - - 3,792,000 bushels. 

Rye 2,582,000 bushels - - - 448,000 bushels. 

Oats 11,247,000 bushels - - - 9,458,000 bushels. 

Buckwheat 1,097,000 bushels 

Total 50,348,000 bushels - - - 107,194,000 bushels. 

In addition to this, Georgia and Tennessee produce annually about fifteen 
millions pounds of rice, and probably 3,000,000 bushels sweet potatoes, none 
of which are raised in New England. They also have, according to the cen- 
sus of 1840, 1,906,851 neat cattle, and 4,484,362 swine; whereas the six New 
England states have but 1,545,273 neat cattle, and only 748,698 swine. 



178 MISCELLANY. 

Thus showing that, while we have a little over half the population of New 
England, we have more than double the capacity to feed them. Hence the 
fact that provisions are comparatively so much cheaper in these states than at 
the north, and hence the great advantage which we would have as competitors 
in manufacturing enterprise. Iu many parts of Georgia and Tennessee oper- 
atives can live for less than one half of what it would cost them at Lowell, or 
in any other of the great manufacturing cities of New England. Having this 
immense advantage in regard to provisions, and a corresponding advantage in 
procuring the raw material, why should our capitalists hesitate to invest their 
means in manufactures ? Especially, why should the citizens of Macon hesi- 
tate ? — Macon Journal and Messenger. 



" what's IN A NAME ?" 

There is Gin, or the snare, which has caught and ruined so many thousands. 
Very pertinently is it asked in a certain wise, ancient book : " Can a bird fall 
in a snare upon the earth where no gin is set for him V But " gin-shops" are 
set at every corner. 

In some of our cities may be seen-a sign, which to me has an aspect equally 
truthful and portentous— The Shades! How appropriate ! The propriety is 
kindred to that which assigns to a certain low department of the theatre the 
name Pit, and at the entrance thereto places the words, the way to the Pit ; 
and to certain establishments planned to ruin men, body and soul, the unequiv- 
ocal word Hell. How strangely the destroyers of their species do unwittingly 
tell the truth ! If you choose to spell the word Red Rum, which is the correct 
term for that fiery liquid which is usually sold under the name of Brandy — if 
you choose, I say, to spell it backward, you have the true interpretation of its 
essence — Murder. 

Another well-named drink there is — Bitters — a sort of qualifying liquid, 
as occasionally used. How the muscles of the mouth revolt at it, contorting 
that useful but abused organ into a frightful variety of shapes. Does water — 
bland, blessed, tranquil water, God's own untainted gift to man — ever convulse 
him so ? Bitter indeed is his lot who indulges the fatal potion. Those drinks, 
too, are called Spirits. Evil spirits they are, only to be compared, in their 
power to possess men, to the demons of old. They drink up the healthy spir- 
its of man, and torment him with their own diabolical influences. Whiskey 
also has its meaning, for it whisks or stceeps a man's reason out of his brains ; 
yet they dare to baptize the ugly thing with the name of mountain-dew, thus 
desecrating that element's poetic designation. Less ferocious drink have their 
meaning, viz. : Champaigne, that is sham pain, or artificial pain, meaning the 
distress produced secundum artem. Pale Ale, from the effects resulting from 
its use. It causes men to ail, stupefying the brain and bloating the flesh. Be- 
hold its pale victims. Porter, a dark liquid, so called from its office, which 
is to carry off a. man's senses and sensibilities, and finally carry hirn — a heavy 
load^— to his grave. Cherry Bounce, a drink that takes its name from its 
bouncing effects on those who indulge in it. Wine, a corruption of whine, 
because of its peculiar influence on certain idiosyncratic temperaments ; and 
so on to the end of the chapter. I leave it to every temperate reader to say 
whether the coincidences have not been fairly made out, and whether they 
should be regarded as purely accidental. I beg the intemperate reader to 
profit by them. — N. Y. Tribune. 



MISCELLANY. 179 



DEFINITIONS OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 

Agriculture (or Husbandry), the art or business of cultivating 
the earth. 

Anatomy, dissection ; the knowledge of the internal structure 
of the human body. Comparative anatomy is applied to brutes, 
and vegetable anatomy to plants. 

Arboriculture, the art of cultivating trees. 

Archeology, the science or study of antiquities. 

Architecture, the art or science of building. 

Arithmetic, the science of numbers; the art of calculating by 
'ig^res. 

Astrology, an imaginary science of predicting by the stars. 

Astronomy, the science which treats of the heavenly bodies. 

Bibliography, the science of books. 

Biography, the history of the life of a person. 

Botany, the study of the vegetable world. 

Chemistry, the science which treats of the action and combina- 
tion of the elements of matter. 

Chromatics, that part of optics which treats of the colors of 
light and of natural bodies. 

Chronology, relates to the measure and division of time into 
periods. 

Conchology, the science which treats of shells. 

Cosmogony, the study of the origin of the universe. 

Cosmography, treats of the figure, construction, &c, of the 
worlu. and includes geography, geology, and astronomy. 

Dagucrrotype (from Da guerre, a French artist), an art by 
which natural objects are stamped or painted by the rays of light. 
[A wonderful modern discovery.] 

Entomology, th? science which treats of insects. 

Electricity, a subtle fluid — a power which causes attraction 
and repulsion between bodie? and particles. 

Engraving, the art of cutting fxgv^es on metal, wood, &c. 

Erpetology (or Herpetology), the scie&r<J or ^tudy of reptiles. 

Ethics, the science or study of moral duties. 

Ethnography, treats of the customs, laws, am* manner- - 
nations. 

Fine Arts (as distinguished from mechanic arts), include paint- 
ing, architecture, sculpture, poetry, music, and rhetoric. 

Floriculture, the cultivation of flowers. 

Geography, the study of the earth, its natural features, divis- 
ions, &c. 

Geology, treats of the structure of the earth, its materials, 
minerals, &c. 

Geometry, the science of mensuration and figures. 

Grammar, the study of language. 

16 



180 MISCELLANY. 

Hieroglyphics, picture-writing, representing actions and events 
by visible signs and figures. 

History, an account or description of events in regular order. 

Horticulture, gardening; cultivation of vegetables, fruits, &c. 

Hydraulics, treats of the motions of fluids. 

Hydrography, the art of measuring seas, lakes, rivers, &c, and 
of making charts of them. 

Hydrostatics, treats of the weight, motion, and pressure of fluids. 

Hygeine, the art or study of preserving health. 

Ichthyology, the science which treats of fishes. 

Law, the body of rules for the regulation of civil society. 

Lithography, the art of engraving or drawing figures on stone. 

luogic, the art of thinking and reasoning justly. 

Mathematics, the science of numbers and magnitudes, and in- 
cludes arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. 

Mechanics, the study of forces and powers, and their applica- 
tion to machines and engines. 

Mensuration, the art of measuring lines, surfaces, and solids. 

Magnetism, the power of attraction. 

Metallurgy, the art of separating metals from their ores. 

Metaphysics, the science of mind or intelligence. 

Meteorology, the science of meteors. 

Mineralogy, the science of minerals. 

Natural History, the history of nature, and includes minerals 
and vegetables. 

Optics, the science which treats of light and vision. 

Ornithology, the branch of natural history which treats of birds. 

Orthoepy, the right use and pronunciation of words. 

Osteology, the science which treats of bones. 

Painting, the art of representing objects on a plane surface by 
lines and colors. 

Pathology, treats of the causes and symptoms of diseases. 

Pharmacy, the art of preparing medicines. 

Philology, the science of letters or learning. 

Philosophy, properly the love of wisdom ; explanation of the 
causes and reasons of things. 

Phrenology, the study of the mental and moral faculties by the 
form of the head. 

Physics, the science of nature ; study of the properties of matter. 

Physiognomy, the study of character by the outward appear- 
ance, or that of the face. 

Physiology, the science of living beings, treats of their consti- 
tution and structure. 

Plating, the art of covering coarser metals with silver or gold. 

Pneumatics, the science of the air and other fluids ; treats of 
their weight, elasticity, &c. 

Poetry, the art of writing in verse, 



MISCELLANT. 181 

Polemics, disputes or controversies — generally applied to reli- 
gious disputes. 

Politics, the science or study of government affairs. 

Political Economy, the science of politics, or the study of na- 
tional prosperity.—' * The science of wealth." — Wayland. 

Pomology, tne art of cultivating fruit-trees. 

Printing, the art of impressing letters on papers, cloth, &c. 

Pyrotechnics (or Pyrotechny), the art or science of fireworks. 

Rhetoric, the art of oratory and composition. 

Sculpture, the art of carving in wood, stone, &c. 

Statistics, a new science — a collection of facts respecting the 
condition of a people or a country, &c. 

Stenography, the art of writing in short-hand. 

Tactics, the science of military and naval manoeuvres. 

Technology, a treatise on the arts ; explanation of the terms 
of art. 

Theology, the doctrine of the nature and character of God ; the 
study of Bible religion. 

Therapeutics, the art of applying remedies for curing disease. 

Topography, the description of a particular place. 

Trigonometry, the science of measuring triangles. 

Zoology, the science which treats of animals. 



■ DEFINITIONS OF SFANISH AND MEXICAN WORDS. 

The following definitions of some common Spanish words will 
be very convenient for newspaper readers in these war times : — 



Mas. Fem. Neuter. 

El, la, lo, the, singular. 
Los, las, the, plural. 



Mas. Fem. Neuter. 
Del, dela, delo, of the, sing. 
Delos, de las, of the, pi ur. 



y, and ; e, and; de, of; si, yes; el rey, the king; los reyes, 
the kings. »S. san, santo, santa, saint ; padre, father, applied 
also to a priest ; mad-re, mother ; senor, sir ; hidalgo, a gentle- 
man ; sen or a, lady ; senorita, a young lady. 

Don, Mr.; Donna, Mrs. ; Dios, God ; Christo, Christ ; Juan, 
John; Pedro, Peter: Carlos, Charles; Antonio, Anthony; Mi- 
guel, Michael ; Francisco, Francis. 

Blanco, white ; nigro, black ; rica, rich ; ciudad, a city ; pue- 
hla, a town ; calle, a street ; hahia, a bay, harbor ; cdsa, a house ; 
rio, a river; agua, water; sierra, mountain; guerilla, war; 
guerillas, irregular soldiers. 

Agua Nueva, new water, meaning a new cistern or reservoir, 
• Agua Fria, cold water. 

Agua Calientes, boiling water or springs. 
Buena Vista, bellevue, pleasant prospect. 



183 MISCELLANY. 

Rancho, a small farming establishment. 
Hacienda, a large estate, country-seat. 
Brazos, arms, applied to a river. 
Paso del Norte, pass, or defile of the north. 
Presidio, a row or block of houses with a fort for defence. 
Rinconada, a corner, as when roads intersect. 
Saltillo, a beak, a bluff; Monterey, king's mountain. 
Matamoros, mulberry-bushes ; Santa Fe, holy faith. 
Reynosa, fit or suitable for a king. 
Rio del Norte, river of the North, the Rio Grande. 
Rio Nueces, Nat river; Rio Hondo, Deep river. 
Rio Puerco, Hog river, Muddy river. 
Rio Colorado, Red river ; Rio de Conchas, Shell river. 
Rio de P arras, river of Vines ; Casas grandes, large houses. 
P arras, vines trained, wall vines ; Alamo, a poplar. 
Rosa, rose ; roseta, little rose. 
Lobos, wolves, island of; Vera Cruz, true cross. 
Alvarado, name of one of Cortes's generals. 
St, Juan d'Ulloa, St. John of Acolhua, the Indian name. 
Sacrificios, (island of) sacrifices. 

Sierra Madre, mother mountain, ridge or chain from which 
others spur. 

Cerro Gordo, the high or large neck. 

Puente Nacional, National bridge. 

Resaca de la Palma, rolling land of palm-trees. 

Palo Alto, high wood ; Sacramento, Sacrament. 

Churubusco, coarse or rough scrubs. 

La Vaca, the cow ; El Penon, the rock. 

La Punta, the point ; Plaza, a public square. 

Peon, a laborer, a foot soldier. 

Garita, a sentry-box, a defended gateway. 

Note. — A great many Mexican names of places are, like those 
in our own country, Indian names ; such as Mexico, Jalapa, 
Chihuahua, Chepultepec, Mazatlan, &c, &c. 



GETTING IN DEBT— A FEW FACTS FOR THINKING MEN. 

1. Results of the late bankrupt law in the city and county of 
New York : — 
Whole number of bankrupts petitioning, &c. - - - - 2,550 

No. discharged 2,160 

No. opposed by creditors 356 

Occupations, — Merchants, 726 ; clerks, 405 ; mechanics, 372 ; 
no business, 161; brokers, 85; farmers, 47; gentlemen, 40; 
agents, 31 ; physicians, 26 ; lawyers, 18 ; office-holders, 15 ; auc- 
tioneers, 12 ; laborers, 11 ; victuallers, 11 ; other occupations, 590, 



MISCELLANY. 



183 



There were 40 whose debts were each under - - - $1,000 

There were 268 whose debts were each over - - - 100,000 

There were 12 whose debts were each over - - - 1,000,000 

The largest amount in one petition 5,781*100 

The lowest amount in one petition - 248 

The total amount of indebtedness was $120,580,415 ; of which 
amount one hundred and forty thousand dollars were realized, 
or $1 recovered for $861 of indebtedness. 

2. Imprisonment for Debt — its Results,— The following" sta- 
tistics of imprisonment for debt (in Baltimore), and its results to 
both creditor and debtor, are calculated to leave the same impres- 
sion on the mind of every reader, viz., that it is wrong in every 
point of view : — 



Year. 



1836 
1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 



60S 



532 
489 
473 
419 
365 
407 
317 
342 
342 



■~ a 

GO O 

>■> tn 

fife 



5,288 
4,444 
4,537 
3,609 
2,801 
3,010 
2,446 
2,168 
1,817 
2,298 



o a> 

SP 
< 



$157,029 
164,538 
43,055 
73,884 
53,420 
95,291 
64,757 
44,399 
35,639 
50,695 



O 



$1,458 
1,680 
1,404 
1,412 
1,269 
1,144 
1,490 

906 
1,433 

973 



4,174 J 32,418 782,667 13,169 347 3,624 i 1,008 



No. paying Debts and 
Costs. 



No. Amt. Costs 
Paid. Paid. 



41 
49 

58 
46 
44 
25 
18 
21 
26 
19 



403 
549 
447 
495 
413 
139 
287 
212 
208 



$114 

122 

152 

136 

143 

93 

62 

71 

72 

43 



A Lawyer's Opinion of Law. — A learned judge being once 
asked how he would act, if a man owed him ten pounds and re- 
fused to pay him, replied : " Rather than bring an action, with its 
costs and uncertainty I would give him a receipt in full of all de- 
mands — yea, and I ^uld send him, moreover, five pounds to cover 
all possible costs." 



INCREASE IN THE AVERAGE OF HUMAN LIFE. 

In France, before the revolution, the average age of one million 
of persons who died was 2S years and 10 months. In 1831, the 
average age is given as 31J years. In one century, from 1728 to 
.1S28, the average age of persons dying in London had increased 
4 years and 9 months. In Geneva (Switzerland), the average in- 
crease has, in 300 years, nearly doubled. In 1560, it was a little 
over 21 years ; in 1833, 40 years and 8 months. In the United 

16* 



184 



MISCELLANY. 



States, the increase from 1800 to 1820, was in the ratio of 34.3 
to-36.8. 

Comparative Rate of Mortality, — Average number of deaths 
in proportion to population : — 



European Cities. 



London - - 
Paris - - - 
Berlin - - 
Madrid - - 
Brussels - - 
Glasgow - - 
Manchester - 
Amsterdam - 
Naples - - 
Rome - - 
Vienna - - 



- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 

- 1 



Geneva 1 



n 39 
n 36 
n 30 
n 35 
n 29 
n 38 
n 36 
n 28 
n 28 
n 24 
n 22 
n 43 



European Countries. 

England and Wales - 1 

Great Britain - - - 1 

France 1 

Sweden 1 



Denmark - - - 


- 1 


Russia and Poland - 


- 1 


Netherlands - - - 


- 1 


Germany - - - 


- 1 


Prussia - - - - 


- 1 


Austria - - - - 


- 1 



n 45 
n 55 
n 41 
n 48 
n 45 
n 44 
n 38 
n 45 
n 39 
n 40 



Spain and Portugal - 
Italy 



in 40 
in 30 



Greece 1 in 30 

1 in 30 
1 in 44 
1 in 36 
1 in 40 



Turkey - - - - 
Northern Europe - 
Southern Europe - 
Average of Europe - 



American Cities. 



New York - 
Philadelphia - 
Baltimore 
Charleston - 
Boston - - 
Washington - 
New Orleans 
Providence - 
Lowell - - 
Salem - - - 



Other Cities. 



n 40 
n 46 
n 42 
n 44 
n 44 
n 50 
n — 
n 41 
n 57 
n 54 



Batavia (Java) - - - 1 in 26 
Martinique - - - - 1 in 28 

Bombay 1 in 20 

Havana 1 in 33 



THE COLD WATER SONG. 

Shall e'er cold water be forgot 

When we sit down to dine 1 W 
O no, my friends, for is it not. 

Poured out by hands divine ? 
Poured out by hands divine, my friends, 

Poured out by hands divine : 
From springs and wells it gushes forth, 

Poured out by hands divine. 

Cold water, too (though wonderful, 

'Tis no less true, again) — 
The weakest of all earthly drinks 

Doth make the strongest men ; 
Doth make the strongest men, my friends, 

Doth make the strongest men : 
Then let us take the weakest drink, 

And grow the strongest men. 



MISCELLANY. 185 

And as the bells of tulips turn 

To drink the drops that fell 
From summer clouds — then why should not 

The two lips of a belle ? 
The two lips of a belle, my friends, 

The two lips of a belle ; 
What sweetens more than water pure 

The two lips of a belle ? 

The sturdy oak full many a cup 

Doth hold up to the sky 
To catch the rain, then drinks it up, 

And thus the oak gets high. 
'Tis thus the oak gets high, my friends, 

'Tis thus the oak gets high, 
By having water in its cups — 

Then why not you and I ? 

Then let cold-water armies give 

Their banners to the air ; 
So shall the boys like oaks be strong, 

The girls like tulips fair : 
The girls like tulips fair, my friends, 

The girls like tulips fair ; 
The boys shall grow like sturdy oaks, 

The girls like tulips fair. Pierpont 



BRITISH MINISTRY OF 1847. 

Lord John Russell, First Lord of the Treasury. 

Rt. Hon. Charles Wood, Chancellor of the Exchequer. 

Lord Cottenham, Lord Chancellor. 

Marquis of Lansdowne, President of the Council. 

Earl of Minto, Lord Privy Seal. 

Rt. Hon. Sir Geo. G-rey, Secretary State for Home Department. 

Viscount Palmerston, Secretary State for Foreign Department. 

Earl Grey, Secretary State for Colonial Department. 

Earl of Auckland, First Lord of the Admiralty. 

Rt. Hon. Sir John C. Hobhouse, President of Board of Control. 

Lord Campbell, Chancellor of Duchy of Lancaster. 

Viscount Morpeth, First Commissioner of Woods and Forests. 

Rt. Hon. Henry Labouchere, President of Board of Trade. 

Marquis of Clanricarde, Postmaster-General. 

Rt. Hon. T. B. Macaulay, Paymaster-General. 

Earl of Clarendon, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 



HOW THE POTENTATES OF EUROPE REGARD ITS. 

The following language is ascribed to the duke of Richmond, 
while governor of the Canadas : — 
u The duke, a short time prior to his death, in speaking of the 



186 MISCELLANY. 

government of the United States, said: i It was weak, inconsist- 
ent, and bad, and could not long exist.' — ' It will be destroyed ; it 
ought not, and will not be permitted to exist, for many and great 
are the evils that have originated from the existence of that gov- 
ernment. The curse of the French revolution, and subsequent 
wars and commotions in Europe, are to be attributed to its exam- 
ple, and so long as it exists, no prince will be safe upon his 
throne ; and the sovereigns of Europe are aware of it, and they 
have been determined upon its destruction, and have come to an 
understanding upon this subject, and have decided on the means 
to accomplish it ; and they will eventually succeed by subversion, 
rather than conquest.' — i All the low and surplus population of 
the different nations of Europe will be carried into that country : 
it is a receptacle for the bad and disaffected population of Europe, 
when they are not wanted for soldiers, or to supply the navies ; 
and the European government will favor such a course. This will 
create a surplus and a majority of low population, who are so very 
easily excited ; and they will bring with them their principles, 
and in nine cases out of ten adhere to their ancient and former 
governments, laws, manners, customs, and religion, and will trans- 
mit them to their posterity, and in many cases propagate them 
among the natives. These men will become citizens, and by the 
constitution and laws will be invested with the right of suffrage ; 
the different grades of society will then be created by the eleva- 
tion of a few, and by degrading many, and thus a heterogeneous 
population will be formed, speaking different languages, and of 
different religions and sentiments ; and to make them act, think, 
and feel alike in political affairs, will be like mixing oil and wa- 
ter. Hence discord, dissension, anarchy, and civil war, will ensue, 
and some popular individual will assume the government and re- 
store order, and the sovereigns of Europe, the emigrants, and 
many of the natives will sustain him.' '■ 



LAWS RELATIVE TO ALIENS. 

In England, a person foreign born can be naturalized only by an 
act of parliament, and is then ineligible to parliament, and of hold- 
ing any office of trust under the crown. He may acquire lands by 
purchase or devise, but not by inheritance — can not even transmit 
such lands to his children born before his naturalization. — M'Cul- 
loch. 

In Holland, a short residence in the country, and a small pay- 
ment to the state, entitle a foreigner to every privilege enjoyed by 
a native. This has been a fundamental law of the state for cen- 
turies. — Id. 

In the United States, a residence of five years, and taking an 
oath to support the constitution, 



MISCELLANY — ITEMS. 187 



ITEMS. 



Jefferson's Ten Practical Rules of Life. 

1. Never put off till tomorrow what can be done to day. 

2. Never trouble others to do what you can do yourself. 

3. Never spend your money before you have it. 

4. Never buy what you do not want because it is cheap. 

5. Pride costs as much as hunger, thirst, and cold. 

6. We never repent of eating too little. 

7. Nothing is troublesome that we do willingly. 

8. How much pain those evils cost us that never happen. 

9. Take things by their smooth handle. 

10. When angry always count ten before you speak. 



Franklin's Prayer. 

O Powerful Goodness ! Bountiful Father ! Merciful Guide ! 
Increase in me that wisdom which discovers my truest interest. 
Strengthen my resolution to perform what that wisdom dictates. 
Accept my kind offices to thy other children as the only return in 
my power for thy continual favors to me. 

[This is verv beautiful, exhibiting, as it does, a spirit of meek- 
ness and humility becoming a dependent being. It only needs an 
acknowledgment of the Savior, to be a Christian prayer. The 
same remark is applicable to the oft-repeated quotation from the 
poet Thomson : " Father of light and life ! thou Good Su- 
preme!" &c, &c] 

Passports. 

Citizens of the United States going to foreign countries, should 
obtain passports from the secretary of state in Washington. This 
may be done by application in writing. The applicant should for- 
ward evidence of his being a citizen, with a description of his 
person, embracing the following particulars : Age, in years ; stat- 
ure, in feet and inches ; forehead, eyes, nose, mouth, chin, hair, 
complexion, face. 

Where the wife, children, servants, or females, are to accom- 
pany a citizen, it will be sufficient to give the names and ages of 
such, stating their relationship to the applicant, and one passport 
may serve for the whole. 

Without such a passport on leaving the country, Americans are 
liable to great disappointments and inconveniences in visiting 
Europe. 



188 MISCELLANY — ITEMS. 

True Female Nobility. 

The woman, poor and ill clad as she may be, who balances her 
income and expenditures — who toils and sweats in unrepining 
mood among all her well-trained children, and presents them, 
morning and evening, as offerings of love to her husband, in rosy 
health and cheerful cleanliness — is the most exalted of her sex. 
Before her shall the proudest dame bow her jewelled head, and 
the bliss of a happy heart dwell with her for ever. If there is one 
prospect dearer than another to the soul of man — if there is one 
act more likely to bend the proud and inspire the broken-hearted 
— it is for a smiling wife to meet her husband at the door with 
his host of happy children. How it stirs up the tired blood of an 
exhausted man, when he hears a rush of many feet upon the stair- 
case — when the crow and carol of their young voices mix in glad 
confusion, and the smallest mounts or sinks into his arms amidst 
a mirthful shout. It was a halo from every countenance that 
beamed around the group ! There was joy and a blessing there. 



Tobacco* 

It is a singular fact, that man is the only creature that delights 
in tobacco and ardent spirits — he is the only creature that will 
even taste them ; so far is he placed above, or so much does he 
sink himself below the brute creation. Few ever learn to use to- 
bacco in any way, without at first suffering the most distressing 
sickness ; and were it called medicine, and administered by a phy- 
sician's advice, a second dose would never very willingly be taken. 

John Quincy Adams says : " I have often wished that every in- 
dividual of the human race afflicted with this artificial passion, 
could prevail upon himself to try but for three months the experi- 
ment which I have made — [giving it up after years of smoking 
and chewing] — I am sure that it would turn every acre of tobacco 
land into a wheat-field, and add five years of longevity to the av- 
erage of human life." 



French Affairs. 

The American Congress is not the only legislative assembly in 
which speeches are made for " Buncombe." The following is a 

Eicture of France, as lately represented by a speech in the cham- 
er of deputies : — 
" With statistics in our hands, we prove that, in this beautiful 
and fertile realm of thirty-four and a half millions of inhabitants, 
nearly thirty millions live from hand to mouth from day to day : 
our cities contain four millions of paupers, and our fields as many : 
there is one absolute pauper for every four or five members of the 



MISCELLANY — ITEMS. 



180 



vast French family. Of every three inhabitants of Paris, one is 
destined to die in a hospital ; the average in our cities and towns 
is one to nine for the same lot ; in various departments the race 
degenerates, and it is difficult to make up the military contingents. 
In our manufacturing communities, the mean or average life of 
the children of the rich is twenty -nine years ; that of the poor, two 
years : our criminal records attest a frightful increase of crime : 
three hundred and seventy thousand individuals fall annually un- 
der the operation of the penal code — that is more than twenty 
thousand each judicial day." 



Yellow Fever. 

Dr. Hort, a physician of New Orleans, has come to the follow- 
ing conclusions respecting quarantine laws and yellow fever : — 

1. The yellow fever, like other malignant fevers, is of local origin. 

2. It is not an imported disease. 

3. It is not contagious. 

4. There is a yellow-fever region, in which the fever may at 
any time originate. 

5. The yellow fever region on this continent has receded greatly. 

6. The yellow fever has been abating in New Orleans in a ratio 
with city improvements. 

7. Experience has shown that quarantine laws are useless— ex- 
pensive, injurious to the city, and burdensome to passengers. 



No. of Pardons for Criminal Offences in New York. 

In 1843, by Gov. Bouck - 
In 1844, by Gov. Bouck - ■ 
In 1845, by Gov. Wright ■ 



In 1840, by Gov. Seward - 55 
In 1841, by Gov. Seward - 59 
In 1842, by Gov. Seward - 95 



88 
85 
95 



Quantity of Rain falling Annually in different Places and 
Countries. 



Inches. 

Grenada, West Indies - - 112 

Calcutta 81 

Charleston, S. C. - - - 54 

Williamsburg, Virginia - 47 

Cambridge, Mass. - - - 47 

Vienna 44 

Rutland, Vermont - - - 41 

Naples - 37 

England 36 

Cincinnati, Ohio - - - 36 



Inches. 

Rome 35 

Bourbon (island) - - - - 32 

Philadelphia 30 

Scotland ------ 30 

Algiers -------29 

Abo, Sweden 25 

London 22 

Marseilles, France - - - 21 

Paris - 20 

St. Petersburg - - - - 12| 



190 



MTSCELLANY — ITEMS. 



Relative Power of Steam Engines, on a Level and on different 

Ascents. 

An engine of a given power will draw on a level - - 420 tons. 

On an ascent of 10 feet per mile 280 tons. 

On an ascent of 20 feet per mile - - 208 tons. 

On an ascent of 30 feet per mile ------- 154 tons. 

On an ascent of 40 feet per mile - - - - - - -135 tons. 

On an ascent of 50 feet per mile 114 tons. 

On an ascent of 60 feet per mile 98 tons. 

On an ascent of 70 feet per mile 86 tons. 

On an ascent of 80 feet per mile 76 tons. 

Thus it is seen, that it will require nearly six times the power, 
or six engines, to draw a load up the latter ascent (80 feet to the 
mile), which one engine would do on a level. 



No. of Yards in a Mile or in a League 



Yards. 

Roman mile - - - - 1,628 

Tuscan mile - - - - 1,808 

English or American - 1,760 

Old Scottish mile - - 1,984 

Old Irish mile - - - 2,240 

French league - - ■ - 4,263 

Spanish league - - - 7,416 

Portuguese league - - 6,760 

Belgian league - - - 6,864 

German short mile - - 6,859 

German long mile - - 10,126 

Russian verst - - - 1,167 

Russian mile - - - 8,237 

Danish mile - - - - 8,244 



Yards. 

Dantzic mile - - - - 8,475 

Hungarian mile - - - 9,113 

Swiss mile - - - - 9,153 

Hanover mile - - - 11,599 

Swedish mile - - - 11,700 

Arabian mile- - - - 2,148 

Persian mile - - - - 6,116 

Turkish mile- - - - 1,826 

English geographical 

mile ------ 2,025 

German geographical 

mile 8,100 

English or French geo- 
graphical league - - 6,075 



Proportion of Suicides to Population in various Countries. 



Russia - - 
Austria - - 
France - - 
Pennsylvania 
Prussia - - 



in 49,000 
in 20,900 
in 18,000 
in 15,875 
in 14,404 



New York (state) - 1 in 7,797 

London - - - - 1 in 5,000 

Berlin - - - - 1 in 2,941 

Geneva - - - - 1 in 2,941 

Paris ----- 1 in 2,400 



Number of suicides in England and Wales during one year end- 
ing June 30, 1839 — males, 751 ; females, 307 : total, 1,058 — equal 
to 1 in 13,327 in a population of 14,500,000. 






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